Issue 4 (200)/2024

ALSE and ACS Style

Oyetunji, G.O.; Olagunju, E.A.; Ajayi, O.O.; Adesina, G.O. Herbicide use in Nigeria: a review of its effects on human, animal and environmental health. Journal of Applied Life Sciences and Environment 2024, 57 (4), 545-590.
https://doi.org/10.46909/alse-574152

AMA Style

Oyetunji GO, Olagunju EA, Ajayi OO, Adesina GO. Herbicide use in Nigeria: a review of its effects on human, animal and environmental health. Journal of Applied Life Sciences and Environment. 2024; 57 (4): 545-590.
https://doi.org/10.46909/alse-574152

Chicago/Turabian Style

Oyetunji, Goodness O., Emmanuel A. Olagunju,Oluwakemi O. Ajayi, and Gabriel O. Adesina. 2024. “Herbicide use in Nigeria: a review of its effects on human, animal and environmental health.” Journal of Applied Life Sciences and Environment 57, no. 4: 545-590.
https://doi.org/10.46909/alse-574152

Herbicide use in Nigeria: a review of its effects on human, animal and environmental health

Goodness O. Oyetunji, Emmanuel A. Olagunju*, Oluwakemi O. Ajayi, Gabriel O. Adesina

Department of Crop and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Ladoke Akintola

University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Oyo State, Nigeria; e-mail: toluwapelumi2000@gmail.com; ajayioluwakemikikelemo@gmail.com; goadesina@lautech.edu.ng

*Correspondence: olagunjuemmanuel7@gmail.com

Received: Aug. 30, 2024. Revised: Nov. 02, 2024. Accepted: Nov. 07, 2024. Published online: Dec 23, 2024

ABSTRACT. Herbicides are a class of pesticide compounds with a specific role in weed control. Most herbicides have a positive effect on crop production; however, they are also harmful to the environment, animals, and humans when misused. The aims of this study were to identify commonly used herbicides in Nigeria, examine the effects of herbicides from the perspective of One Health (i.e., the health of humans, animals, and the environment), and increase public awareness of the negative impact of herbicide misuse on human, animal, and environmental health in Nigeria. We conducted a systematic literature search for this study using Google Scholar, the Bielefeld Academic Search Engine (BASE), Research Gate, and PubMed, focusing on research studies conducted in Nigeria. In total, 192 articles were included in this review. Atrazine, glyphosate, metolachlor, paraquat, and 2,4-D are the most commonly used herbicides in Nigeria. According to reports, some of these chemicals inhibit plant photosynthesis and disrupt the female luteinising hormone surge, which disrupts ovulation. Moreover, these chemicals can lead to negative outcomes, such as headaches, oxidative stress, and pollution. Only 1.0, 9.4, and 16.1% of the studies examined the impact of herbicides on human, animal, and environmental health, respectively. Similarly, only 11 studies (5.7%) investigated bioherbicide development in Nigeria, and only 2.6% tested for herbicide residues in crops. Nigeria desperately needs public education regarding the use of herbicides. One health intervention is urgently needed.

Keywords: herbicides; one health; public health; weeds.

 

INTRODUCTION

A significant part of every economy is agriculture, and Nigeria is no exception, accounting for about 21.91% of the country’s GDP (Plecher, 2020; Singh-Peterson and Iranacolaivalu, 2018). For most Nigerians, farming and other agricultural pursuits are the main sources of sustained income (Ibiremo et al., 2011). A variety of issues may contribute to the low production of farmers’ fields, but inadequate weed control typically ranks as one of the main causes. In the tropics, controlling weeds is never simple (Ekeleme et al., 2021). As a substantial contributor to biodiversity in agricultural systems worldwide, weeds constitute one of the main biotic barriers to effective crop production in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) (Gerasimova and Mitova, 2020). Weeds compete with crop plants for light, nutrients, and moisture, and this creates stress factors for crops, thereby leading to significant yield loss (Qasem and Foy, 2008) in many cropping systems. Several weed species also act as alternative hosts for pests, insects, and diseases (Kumar et al., 2021). Farmers devote more time and resources to controlling weeds, and the financial burden of managing weeds is greater than the total cost of managing other pests (Chikoye et al., 2000).

The expense of managing weeds accounts for roughly 75% of the total cost of pest control in crop fields (Samedani et al., 2013). The most common approach to weeding in smallholder farms is hand weeding. Depending on the weed species and the weed pressure, smallholder farmers carry out hand weeding three or four times in a cropping cycle. Perennial weeds, such as Imperata cylindrica (L.) and Panicum maximum (Jacq.), predominate, making hoe weeding necessary. Hand weeding is a tedious activity that either delays work or takes longer to complete (Gianessi, 2010). Chemical weed control is an alternative to manual weeding because it is quicker, requires less labour, and provides better control, although it depends on many factors, including the weed type, density, and environment as well as the herbicide formulation and mode of action (Gianessi, 2010; Teasdale and Cavigelli, 2010).

Herbicides are estimated to make up over 72% of all pesticides used to eradicate pests in agricultural fields (Samedani et al., 2013). Herbicide usage (HU) among smallholder and medium-sized farmers in West Africa has risen due to rising costs and a general lack of labour for hand weeding (Akobundu, 1980; Howeler, 2013). Among the benefits of herbicides is the reduction of manual weeding, which is labour intensive, physically strenuous, and often harmful to the farmer’s health and well-being (Gianessi, 2010). Herbicide use allows farmers to spend more time expanding their farming area, developing kitchen gardens, and engaging in off-farm activities (Gianessi, 2010). Women and children who often shoulder a significant portion of the weeding workload may have greater availability for childcare and educational pursuits, respectively (Tamru et al., 2017). Farmers can obtain more crops from their land using herbicides. These chemicals also make it easier for farmers to switch to conservation agriculture, which reduces soil erosion and carbon loss (Haggblade et al., 2017).

However, herbicides also negatively impact plant and soil environments (Ghazi et al., 2023). The increasing evolution of herbicide-resistant weed biotypes in different cropping systems remains a concern (Kremer, 2005). Large amounts of herbicide residues often aggregate in the topsoil layer where microbial activity takes place (Amal et al., 2003; Gong et al., 2001; Osman et al., 2005). Herbicide and pesticide residues contaminate soils and water, remain in crops, make their way up the food chain, and ultimately end up in human diets and water (Taylor et al., 2003). The worldwide use of phenylurea herbicides (PUHs) has led to their discovery in food products and various environmental compartments (Lu et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2015). For instance, reports suggest that PUHs harm people, small mammals, and aquatic species (Blondel et al., 2013; Lu et al., 2018). It has been suggested that isoproturon, diuron, and linuron may have cytogenetic, mutagenic, carcinogenic, endocrine-disrupting, and teratogenic effects on both humans and animals (Lu et al., 2018; Orton et al., 2009). Consequently, we must employ innovative techniques to mitigate the detrimental impacts of these substances on human, animal, and environmental health. One potential approach is the One Health framework, which acknowledges the interconnectedness and interdependence of human health and the health of domestic and wild animals, plants, and the broader environment, including ecosystems (Olagunju et al., 2023; WHO, 2021). Adsorbents, including peat fibre, clay, bottom ash, fly ash, and zeolite, can effectively extract herbicides from soil (Ghazi et al., 2023). Furthermore, we can implement One Health strategies by employing natural extracts from Nerium and olive for weed management (Al-Samarai et al., 2018) and by instructing farmers on the detrimental impacts of excessive herbicide use and appropriate application.

In recent years, Nigeria has seen a notable increase in the use of herbicides for weed control (Abakpa et al., 2024). The ease of application, efficacy in controlling common weeds in Nigerian farms, and the growing challenge of finding workers to perform the labour-intensive manual weed cutting process have all contributed to this increase (Tijani, 2006). There are no published data on the use of herbicides in agriculture or other activities in Nigeria. However, the quantity of herbicides used in Nigeria increased from 24,935.78 metric tonnes (Mt) to 175,975.49 MT from 2010 to 2020, with a total of 548,327,000,000 MT used during the period based on the Usman (2021) report with data obtained from the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) Abuja in February 2021 on pesticide imports into Nigeria. Hence, the objectives of our study are to: determine the most used herbicide(s) in Nigeria; study the effect of herbicides through the One Health lens (i.e., human, animal, and environmental health); study the effect of herbicides on agricultural production; and raise awareness of the impacts the use of these chemicals has on living organisms and their non-living environment in Nigeria. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first paper to study the trend of HU in Nigeria.

 

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Information sources and search strategy

Publications indexed in Google Scholar, Bielefeld Academic Search Engine (BASE), Research Gate, and PubMed were examined. There were no restrictions on the year of publication, and only research papers were reviewed.

The search approach entailed choosing suitable terms and phrases pertaining to studies and researches where herbicides application was the focus and were carried out in Nigeria. We employed the search phrases in combination with Boolean operators (AND, OR, and NOT) to efficiently retrieve pertinent material. The search construction used was: (“herbicides” OR “atrazine” OR “glyphosate” OR “paraquat” OR “2,4-D” OR “metolachlor” OR “propanil” OR “pendimethalin”) AND (“human” OR “animal” OR “environment” OR “water” OR “soil” OR “microbes” OR “crop”) AND (“Abia” OR “Adamawa” OR “Akwa Ibom” OR “Anambra” OR “Bauchi” OR “Bayelsa” OR “Benue” OR “Borno” OR “Cross River” OR “Delta” OR “Ebonyi” OR “Edo” OR “Ekiti” OR “Enugu” OR “Federal Capital Territory (FCT)” OR “Gombe” OR “Imo” OR “Jigawa” OR “Kaduna” OR “Kano” OR “Katsina” OR “Kebbi” OR “Kogi” OR “Kwara” OR “Lagos” OR “Nasarawa” OR “Niger” OR “Ogun” OR “Ondo” OR “Osun” OR “Oyo” OR “Plateau” OR “Rivers” OR “Sokoto” OR “Taraba” OR “Yobe” OR “Zamfara”) AND (“State” OR “Nigeria”).

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

We formulated the inclusion criteria to select relevant peer-reviewed studies that provided significant insights into the relationship between herbicides, crop yield, weed management, and human, animal, and environmental well-being. We strictly adhered to our objectives, focusing on published original papers that were indexed in the aforementioned databases and carried out the following research and study objectives in Nigeria: evaluation of the impact of herbicides on microbiological activity in a specific area; determination of the economic feasibility of various herbicides assessed for weed management in agricultural production; evaluation of herbicide efficacy of herbicides and establishment of the optimal rate for achieving maximum crop yields in Nigeria; research on the impact of single- and tank-mix weed control on crop productivity; analysis of herbicide residues in specific areas; assessment of the long-term effects of HU on farmlands, considering the metal content and the associated groundwater risk assessment; exploration of how herbicides affect the survival and mobility of non-target organisms; evaluation of how frequent herbicide use for weed control around homes affects the physical and chemical properties of the soil in specific communities; tracking of the persistence of the herbicides in Fadama and upland soil to pinpoint the soil conditions that encourage herbicide degradation or persistence; and assessment of the efficacy of these herbicides in weed control.

The following types of studies were not included: those that were cited but no full records were found; those that did not have data directly related to the goals of this paper; those that were purely theoretical and did not have any empirical data; those that only looked at the science behind the different types of weeds in Nigerian cropping systems; those that tested how imazapyr seed coating affected weed control; and those that were done outside of Nigeria.

Data analysis

Microsoft Excel 2013 was used for statistical analysis and visualisation.

 

RESULTS

At the end of this search, 192 studies fit the criteria. Approximately 13.4% of the studies conducted surveys on herbicides in rural areas of Nigeria. Of the studies, 51.6% used herbicides to control weeds around a crop or in an environment. However, only 5 studies, representing 2.6% of the studies, tested the herbicide concentration in crops.

The number of studies conducted on residues in the environment was 16.1%, comprising 31 papers. Surveys of herbicides’ effects on human and animal health comprised 1.0 and 9.4% of the papers, respectively. There were only 11 bio-herbicide papers, accounting for 5.7% of the total. These low percentages validate the necessity of conducting this review study.

Herbicides used

Atrazine was the most applied herbicide across studies and was applied in 53 studies, followed by glyphosate, which it was applied in 40 studies. These were followed by metalochlor (38 studies), paraquat (36 studies), 2,4-D (19 studies), pendimenthalin (16 studies), propanil (10 studies), alachlor (10 studies), and nicosulfuron (9 studies, respectively), and imadazoline herbicides; imazapyr and imazaquin were employed in 6 studies. These herbicides were either applied alone or in combination with other herbicides (Figure 1).

 

 

Study regions

The state in which the highest number of studies were conducted was Oyo State (27 studies), followed by Ogun, Kaduna, Kwara, and Benue States, with 16, 14, 12, and 10 studies, respectively.

However, no studies were recorded in 7 states: Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Imo, Kebbi, Taraba, Yobe, and Zamfara States (Figure 2).

Survey of herbicide use

According to surveys (Table 1) carried out in Abia, Benue, Enugu, Ogun, Oyo, and Rivers States by Iyagba (2013) and Udensi et al. (2020), most farmers and other end users had been exposed to herbicides during their application. Many exposed individuals indicated that they had not used personal protective equipment or other protective measures as recommended (Joseph et al., 2020; Olughu et al., 2019;). The majority of those exposed saw no doctors. This illustrates the typical behaviour of ordinary Nigerians in rural areas, who often postpone consultations until health issues escalate.

Alkali et al. (2021) showed that weeds were the biggest problem for farming in the study area, which included Bolori, Bulumkutu, Gamboru custom, Gwange, Mairi, the University of Maiduguri campus, and Wulari. Because of this, farmers used herbicides more often than other types of pesticides (Abakpa et al., 2024; Adejori and Akinnagbe, 2022; Adekunle et al., 2017; Agahiu and Akogu, 2019; Babatunde et al., 2019; Bauchi et al., 2009; Eifediyi et al., 2014; Olayinka et al., 2019; Oluwole and Cheke, 2009; Olughu et al., 2019; Yakubu et al., 2010). These results agree with FAOSTAT (2018) reports, which show that, among the several pesticide groups, herbicides are the most commonly utilised (49%).

Tologbonse and Adekunle (2000) mentioned that rural farmers from Benue could not afford herbicides due to the high cost and scarcity of preferred products. As indicated by Fadipe et al. (2014), more farmers (88%) are willing to spend more if they can access agrochemicals and fertilisers nearby. However, these choices are influenced by various socioeconomic factors, such as crop production, farming experience, understanding the mode of action of herbicides, education, and farmers’ income. Kughur (2012) revealed that farmers applying herbicides experienced symptoms, such as fatigue, nausea, vertigo, and ocular and dermatological illnesses. However, Kughur’s assessment suggests that farmers’ efforts to quickly cover large areas of agricultural land and the use of defective spraying equipment could lead to this linkage.

The study did not mention the specific names of the herbicides. Of respondents, 95% reported experiencing health issues as a result of pesticides either during or after their application (Adekunle et al., 2017). The symptoms included chest pain, burning sensation, skin redness, white patches, cough, burning, stinging, itchy eyes, dizziness, vomiting, and shortness of breath. Furthermore, Adekunle et al. (2017) attributed these prevalent symptoms to exhaustion and weariness following field activity.

Herbicide use for controlling weeds

All studies listed in Table 2 conducted research on herbicide use to control weeds around crops. In contrast to manual weeding, herbicide use decreased the need for manual labour in crop cultivation, thereby enhancing crop yield and farmers’ income (Akadiri et al., 2017; Aliyu and Lagoke, 2001; Ugbe et al., 2021; Baba et al., 2015; Ekeleme et al., 2021; Ibrahim and Jimin, 2023; Imeokparia et al., 1992; Imoloame, 2020; Lagoke et al., 1981; Ogbuji, 2024; Olorukooba et al., 2022).

 

Table 1
Studies that carried out herbicide surveys and the states or geopolitical zone where the surveys were conducted across Nigeria

Trade name	Active ingredients	State	Zone	References
–	–	Rivers State	South South	Iyagba et al., 2013
–	Paraquat	Abia State Benue State Enugu State Ogun State Oyo State Rivers State	South East North Central South East South West South West South South	Udensi et al., 2020
–	Atrazine, Paraquat, Chlorbromuron, Metolachlor, Bentazon, Primextra, Dual, Galax, Codal, Oxadiazon, and Glyphosate	Sokoto State	North West	Yakubu et al., 2010
Primextra Gold®, Afalon®, Tackle®, and UpRoot 240 EC®	Atrazine, Afalon, Linuron, Metolachlor, glyphosate, Paraquat, 2, 4-D, Chlorsulfuron, and Clethodim	Abia State Benue State Ogun State Oyo State	South East North Central South West South West	Ekeleme et al., 2019
Touch Down®, Clear Weed®, Round Up® and Everest®	Glyphosate and flucarbazone-sodium	Ondo State	South West	Adejori and Akinnagbe, 2022
AtraForce®, Gramazone®, Primextra® and Round-Up®	2,4-D, Atrazine, Paraquat, Metolachlor, and Glyphosate	Ekiti State	South West	Oluwole and Cheke, 2009
Primextra®, Gramoxone®, Atraforce®, Amine®, Roundup®	Metolachlor, Paraquat, Atrazine, 2,4-D, Glyphosate	Oyo State	South West	Adekunle et al., 2017
–	Diuron, 2,4-Dmine, Paraquat, Glyphosate, Atrazine, Metolachlor and Pendimenthalin	Oyo State	South West	Babarinsa et al., 2018
–	Atrazine, Paraquat, Glyphosate, Propanil, Butachlor, Oxidiaxone, 2,4-D-Amine and Pendimenthalin	Plateau State	North Central	Umukoro et al., 2016
Fusilade® and Primextra®	Triazines, Fluazifop-p-βutyl and S-Metolachlor	Kano State	North West	Isah et al., 2020
–	Glyphosate, Paraquat, Atrazine, Alachlor	Edo State	South South	Uddin et al., 2015
Clear Weed®, Touch Down®, Round-Up®, and Everest®	Glyphosate and flucarbazone-sodium	Ondo State	South West	Adejori and Akinnagbe, 2022
Paraforce®, Sarosate®, Force-off®, Fitscosate®, Actraforce®, Dsitop®, and Weed off®	Paraquat, glyphosate and atrazine	Benue State	North Central	Abakpa et al., 2024
Primextra® and Gramazone®	Atrazine and Paraquat	Niger State	North Central	Baba et al., 2015
–	Atrazine and glyphosate	Ekiti State	South West	Agbenin et al., 2018
Pentashi®, Clearweed®, Dragon® (Gramazol) and Slasher®	2-4-D, glyphosate and Paraquat	Adamawa State	North East	Joseph et al., 2020
–	2,4-D, paraquat, butylate, atrazine, bladex, glyphosate	Oyo State	South West	Olatinwo et al., 2022
–	paraquat dichloride and glyphosate	Ondo State Kwara State	South West North Central	Aminu et al., 2020
Gramozone®, Parae force®, Weed crush, Touch down® etc	Paraquat and glyphosate	Oyo State Osun State Ekiti State Ondo State Ogun State Lagos State	South West	Olabode et al., 2011

 

 

Omovbude and Udensi (2013) and Shittu and Bassey (2023) found that herbicide use enhanced cowpea productivity, promoting increased growth and yield by alleviating weed infestation. Magani et al. (2012) determined that propanil was effective in managing weeds in sesame to enhance its yield. Applying butachlor at a rate of 1.0 kg a.i. ha⁻¹ can serve as a viable substitute for hoe weeding, resulting in efficient weed management and an increased sesame yield (Audu et al., 2021). According to Osunleti et al. (2022a), weed density and weed species composition decreased, ranging from 88.74 to 96.55% and from 66.92 to 75.53%, respectively, after HU. Unamma and Melifonwu (1986) found that the application of fluometuron, chloramben, diuron/paraquat, simazine, and atrazine/metolachlor at rates of 1.4, 2.7, 1.6, 5.7 and 3.8 kg a.i. ha⁻¹, respectively, effectively managed weeds and significantly increased tuber yields.

Glyphosate application enhances microbial activity in the soil due to its function as an organophosphate, which allows a diverse array of microorganisms to break it down and use it as a carbon, nitrogen, and/or phosphorus food source. Furthermore, glyphosate use increases the soil-accessible nitrogen, leading to improved soil microbial activity. Consequently, it can be considered a superior option for weed management in soil conservation tillage practices, particularly in tropical soils (Adegaye et al., 2023). Ezeri (2002) conducted a study that revealed that glyphosate effectively managed water hyacinths and related weeds without causing any harmful impact on fish and other aquatic biodiversity. Due to its ability to promote the increased growth and yield performance of cocoa, its significantly lower application cost compared to manual weeding, and its ability to maintain a weed-free environment for a longer duration than alternative treatments, cocoa plantations favour glyphosate for weed management (Ayegboyin et al., 2020). Chikoye et al. (2005) conducted a study that demonstrated glyphosate’s highest efficacy in managing cogongrass in the short term. Based on the findings of Take-tsaba et al. (2011), the use of glyphosate, pendimethalin, and butachlor had a notable impact on the growth characteristics of sesame. Galex and glyphosate have demonstrated effective weed control in cowpea cultivation (Ugbe et al., 2016).

Abakura et al. (2015) found that the use of pre-emergence herbicides for weed management significantly impacted both weed control and the growth/yield index of maize. Omisore et al. (2016) investigated several techniques for controlling weeds in cowpea cultivation and showed that the application of a pre-emergence herbicide in conjunction with hoe weeding significantly reduced the weed cover score, significantly increased plant height and branch count, and resulted in a greater number of pods per plant and increased grain yield. Furthermore, herbicide application has led to increased grain production (Lawrence and Dijkman, 1997). Danmaigoro et al. (2022) found that applying gramazone as a pre- and post-emergence herbicide on rice plots significantly increased the number of spikelets per panicle, lengthened the panicle, increased the number of effective tillers per hill, increased the number of grains per panicle, and improved grain output. Plots subjected to pre- and post-emergence herbicide treatment exhibited the greatest benefit–cost ratio. Osunleti et al. (2022b) demonstrated the application of a pre-emergence herbicide for weed control in mango ginger, leading to time and resource savings as well as an improvement in the benefit–cost ratio. The use of prosulfuron and propanil resulted in the greatest grain production compared to all other herbicide treatments, as reported by Haruna et al. (2017). Some of the best pre-emergence herbicides for growing cocoyam are diuron, flumioxazin + pyroxasulfone, and sulfentrazone (Adewumi et al., 2024) because they provide the most benefit for the least amount of cost. Ngonadi et al. (2023) found that pre-emergence herbicide was the most effective choice for weed control.

Imoloame and Osunlola (2017) recommended applying pendimethalin at a rate of 1.5 kg a.i. ha⁻¹, along with one supplementary hoe weeding (SHW) or pendimethalin at 2.0 kg a.i. ha⁻¹, to achieve efficient pest control of weeds and to increase cowpea grain yield. For regions in the Northern Guinea Savanna areas of Nigeria where noxious weed biotypes, such as Rotteboelia cochinchinensis, Imperata cylindrica, Digitaria ciliaris, and sedges, often require high herbicide rates for effective weed control and a higher grain yield of sorghum, a maximum rate of 3.0 kg a.i. ha⁻¹ of pendimethalin can be recommended. Koroma et al. (2021) suggest that metolachlor and pendimethalin have shown efficacy in controlling weeds in groundnut plantations in Yola, Nigeria. Cyprian and Onuba (2019) highly recommended Goal Tender 4F for weed control in cocoyam cultivation in the southeastern region of Nigeria.

Korieocha (2021) found that applying atrazine/metolachlor at a rate of 2.5 kg a.i. ha⁻¹ together with hand weeding was a successful approach for controlling weeds. This method guaranteed a decrease in weed infestation and biomass as well as an increase in sweet potato root yield. Deshi et al. (2019) found that weed management using a combination of herbicides (atrazine and paraquat) as well as using atrazine alone improved the growth and production of potato crops. Lumax, a combination of mesotrione, S-metolachlor, and atrazine, effectively controlled weeds in maize in Nigeria, with rates ranging from 1.88 to 2.96 kg a.i. ha⁻¹ (Chikoye et al., 2009). Imoloame (2017) discovered that using metolachlor + atrazine and pendimethalin + atrazine at doses of 1.0 kg a.i. ha⁻¹, as well as more hand weeding, could be a beneficial alternative to hand weeding for effectively controlling weeds, increasing maize yields, and making more money in Nigeria’s Southern Guinea Savanna. Akinola and Salami (2016) found that the use of herbicides, specifically atrazine and paraquat, significantly reduced Tithonia density, biomass, and height. Furthermore, their implementation resulted in a notable increase in maize plant height, a higher leaf count, and a larger maize girth. In general, their use led to a significant increase in maize grain production. An atrazine formulation is efficacious for weed management in maize when used at dosages below the acceptable threshold (Chikoye et al., 2006). Gani and Daniel (2023) and Gani and Umar (2023) found that applying atrazine at a rate of 0.80 kg a.i. ha⁻¹ and raft at a rate of 0.50 kg a.i. ha⁻¹ resulted in the production of long finger millet panicles, heavier panicle weights, and 1000-grain weights.

Chikoye et al. (2004) and Olatinwo et al. (2022) demonstrated that maize grain yields in treatments exposed to herbicides and velvet bean were comparable and significantly higher than those that were unexposed. Chikoye et al. (2007) demonstrated the significant potential of rimsulfuron in selectively controlling both annual and perennial weeds in maize. Tizhe et al. (2023) suggested that nicosulfuron and bentazone treatments could be used to improve the overall yield of SAMMAZ 17 and SAMMAZ 37 varieties of maize. The study conducted by Falade et al. (2023) revealed that the use of propaben led to the attainment of optimal levels of maize shoot dry matter, decreased weed cover, and increased maize cob production. The use of ninosulfuron on certain commercially available maize cultivars had no negative impact on grain yield (Lum et al., 2004; Lum et al., 2005a, 2005b). The sequential application of herbicides (ParaeForce and AminoForce) at defined time intervals decreased weed resistance and enhanced maize growth and yield (Halliru et al., 2022). Rotating lower herbicide rates on flat seed beds and looking into alternatives to pulling weeds by hand can remove weeds effectively, increase maize grain yield, make a profit, and lower herbicide residue in maize production (Imoloame, 2021). Biochar application in combination with either preemergence herbicide or manual hoe weeding improved maize development and productivity (Adeyemi et al., 2019). According to Eni et al. (2021), using prometryne pre-emergence herbicides with either metolachlor or acetochlor and planting maize between jack bean or groundnut trees made the herbicides work better and increased the yield of maize cobs and grains.

Agahiu (2020) revealed that the combination formulations of acifluorfen and bentazon, together with asulam, resulted in a greater soybean yield and yield components compared to their individual formulations. According to Udensi et al. (2017), it is financially beneficial to use herbicides on a yam–maize–soybean plantation in the Northern Guinea Savanna agro-ecology. According to Aluko et al. (2003) and Anikwe et al. (2003), herbicides improve production and control weeds in the derived savanna, which has a beneficial impact on soybean farming.

As reported by Mahmoud et al. (2013), oxadiazon application resulted in higher average values of plant height, number of branches per plant, number of bolls per plant, boll yield per plot, and boll yield per hectare. Ishaya et al. (2007) found that the fertilisers pretilachlor + dimethametryne at 2.5 kg a.i. ha⁻¹, cinosulfuron at 0.05 kg a.i. ha⁻¹, and piperophos + cinosulfuron at 1.5 kg a.i. ha⁻¹ were the best at removing weeds, making crops stronger, taller, and less damaged, and increasing the grain yield of sorghum. The correct spacing and effective application of herbicides influence pepper output, effectively controlling weed growth, and greatly enhancing pepper production (Mustapha et al., 2021). Akpasi et al. (2023) reported that paraquat herbicide application resulted in elevated levels of moisture, protein, fat, carbohydrate, ash, and vegetable compounds. Furthermore, the nutritional composition of cowpea grain plots treated with herbicides showed modest improvement (Omovbude et al., 2019). To enhance onion production, oxyflorfen (Ibrahim et al., 2011) and chlorthaldimethyl (Sinha and Lagoke, 1983) were applied at the prescribed dosages.

Emeghara et al. (2013) presented a varied assessment of the impact of herbicides on crops. The most effective methods for achieving good weed control and high wheat production were metolachlor + prometryne at 1.25 + 1.25 kg a.i. ha⁻¹, oxadiazon at 1.0 kg a.i. ha⁻¹, and propanil + bentazon at 2.0 + 1.0 kg a.i. ha⁻¹, according to Emeghara et al. (2013). However, atrazine and its combinations are phytotoxic to wheat plants. Furthermore, Udensi and Oyeye (2016) found that using lower rates of Primextra led to successful melon establishment, characterised by optimal ground cover and abundant flowering. Nevertheless, Primextra at a rate of 1.98 kg a.i. ha⁻¹, Force Top at 2.0 kg a.i. ha⁻¹, and Raft at 2.0 kg a.i. ha⁻¹ provided satisfactory (≥ 70%) weed management but resulted in enduring and irremediable damage to crops. The use of herbicides for weed management at the prescribed dosages resulted in improvements in the growth and yield characteristics of agricultural maize. Ordinioha et al. (2017) reported potential persistent negative impacts of the herbicides. Herbicides enhanced cassava yields, but they also had certain negative consequences, such as delayed cassava sprouting and transitory leaf bleaching (Ekeleme et al., 2020). Imeokparia (1994) documented both the beneficial and detrimental impacts of herbicides on rice productivity.

Ricepro application for weed management in rice fields makes rice more vulnerable to infestation and damage from Orseolia oryzivora (Mohammed et al., 2022). Obadoni and Remison (2005) showed that herbicide application did not yield financial benefits in rice cultivation. Ndahi (1984) found that crops with a low herbicide dose and one hoe weeding produced the same crop yield as those without weeding but with higher herbicide rates.

However, only five studies (Adah et al., 2020; Aikpokpodion et al., 2013; Ekhuemelo, 2023; Gushit et al., 2013; Mohammed et al., 2020) examined the amounts of herbicides in crop samples (Table 2). Ekhuemelo (2023) examined the herbicide concentration in cowpea grains. In kola nut samples taken from Ogun, Osun, and Oyo States, Aikpokpodion et al. (2013) tested alachlor in crop samples. Gushit et al. (2013) revealed that during the period under investigation, root crops and leafy vegetable crop samples that were collected had relatively large concentrations of atrazine and 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid. Adah et al. (2020) found that dichloran, heptachlor epoxide, propyzamide, chlorpyrifos, dizinon, endosulfan II, methoxychlor, and mirex were the chemicals most often found in rice samples from three markets in Makurdi and also detected BHC, Aldrin, Trifluralin, Dieldrin, Endrin P, p-DDT, and atrazine. Mohammed et al. (2020) revealed elevated concentrations of herbicide residues in rice samples from Borno State and found documented that the residues examined exceeded the maximum residue limits (MRLs) set by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the acceptable daily intake values (ADIs) set by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2024).

 

Table 2
Studies in which herbicides were used to control weeds in an environment or around a crop

Trade name	Active ingredients	Crop/ Animal	State	Region	References
Movon 450 SC®, Fierce 75 WG®, Merlin Total 600 SC®, Sencor Plus 517.5 SC®, Primextra Gold 600 SC®, Gardoprim Plus Gold 500 SC, Select Max® + Cobra®, Fusilade® Forte® + Cobra®, MaisTer Power 57.5 OD and Touchdown Forte 500 SL®	diflufenican, flufenacet, flurtamone, flumioxazin, pyroxasulfone, indaziflam, isoxaflutole, indaziflam, metribuzin, s-metolachlor, atrazine, terbuthylazine, clethodim, lactofen, fluazifop-p-butyl, lactofen, foramsulfuron-sodium, iodosulfuron-methyl-sodium, thiencarbazone-methyl, cyprosulfamide, andglyphosate	Cassava	Abia State Benue State Ogun State Oyo State	South East North Central South West South West	Ekeleme et al., 2021
–	glyphosate and paraquat	Axonopus compresus (authority) and P. maximum	Ondo state	South West	Adegaye et al., 2023
Primextra®	atrazine and metolachlor	Broadleaf weed, grasses and sedges	Kwara State	North Central	Takim et al., 2023
–	bispyribac-sodium, cyhalofop-butyl, penoxsulam, pendimenthalin, propanil, and thiobencarb	Rice	Nasarawa state	North Central	Ibrahim and Jimin, 2023
–	imazapyr acid	Witchweed	FCT Borno State Niger State	North Central North East North Central	Chikoye et al., 2020
Primextra®, Aminicome®, Paraforce®, and Guard force®	atrazine, metolachlor, paraquat 2, 4-D, and nicosulfuron	Zea mays L.	Kwara State	North Central	Imoloame, 2021
Force Up®, Uproot®, Tackle®, Bush clear®, Dragon® and Paraforce®	glyphosate, paraquat, atrazine, nicosulfuron	Broadleaf, grasses and sedges	Kwara State	North Central	Imoloame et al., 2021
Herbicide‑codal Gold®	Prometryne and metolachlor	Zea mays	Ogun State	South West	Adeyemi et al., 2019
–	primextra, 2, 4-D, and nicosulfuron	Zea mays	Kwara State	North Central	Imoloame et al., 2020
–	galex and fulisade	Rottboellia cochinchinensis, Euphobia hirta, Euphobia heterophila Imperata cylindrica, Cyperus difformis, Oryza barthis, Chromolaena odorata, Ageratum conyzoides,  Tridax procumbens, and Cyperus rotundus	Kwara State	North Central	Omisore et al., 2016
–	paraquat and fluazifopbutyl	Glycine max	Ebonyi State	South East	Anikwe et al., 2003
vinash®	Glyphosate	Macrotermes bellicosus	Edo State	South South	Ekaye et al., 2022
Bullet® and raft®	terbuthylazine, acetochlor and atrazine	Eleusine coracana	Kaduna State	North West	Gani and Daniel, 2023
–	Pendimethalin	Vigna unguiculata	Kwara State	North Central	Imoloame and Osunlola, 2017
probaben® and super union®	prometryne, metolachlor and acetochlor	Maize, jack bean, and groundnut	Ogun State	South West	Eni et al., 2021
	atrazine, metolachlor, terbutryne, prometryne, propanil, 2,4-D and bentazon	Triticum aestivum	Kano State	North West	Emeghara et al., 2013
–	gramazone, paraquat and propanil	Oryza sativa	Jigawa State	North West	Danmaigoro et al., 2022
primextra gold®, raft® and force top®	atrazine, metolachlor, terbutylazine, atrazine and pendimethalin	Citrillus colocynthis	Rivers State	South South	Udensi and Oyeye, 2016
round up®	Glyphosate	Zea mays	Rivers State	South South	Ordinioha et al., 2017
–	paraquat and atrazine	Zea mays	Ekiti State Ondo State	South West South West	Akinola and Salami, 2016
–	fluazifop and propanil	Sesamum indicum	Benue State	North Central	Magani et al., 2012
codal gold®, galex®, pendilin®	prometryne, metolachlor, pendimethalin and metobromuron	Vigna unguiculata	Edo State	South South	Omovbude and Udensi, 2013
–	oxyfluorfen	Broadleaf, grasses, and sedges	Ogun State	South West	Osunleti et al., 2022a
–	oxyfluorfen	Curcuma amada	Ogun State	South West	Osunleti et al., 2022b
–	pendimethalin	Sorghum bicolor	Adamawa State Gombe State	North East North East	Dantata and Shittu, 2014
–	imazaquin and nicosulfuron	Striga hermonthica	Oyo State	South West	Ahonsi et al., 2004
–	diuron, atrazine and metolachlor	Ipomoea batatas	Abia State Benue State	South East North Central	Korieocha, 2021
round-up®	Glyphosate	Water Hyacinth	Ogun State	South West	Ezeri, 2002
–	alachlor, atrazine and simazine	Cowpea	Benue State Nasarawa State Kogi State Kwara State Niger State Plateau State FCT	North Central North Central North Central North Central North Central North Central North Central	Ekhuemelo, 2023
–	butachlor, glyphosate and pendimethalin	Sesamum indicum	Sokoto State	North West	Take-tsaba et al., 2011
	metolachlor, metobromuron, metribuzin, chlorbromuron, deflufenican, diphenamid, linuron and pendimethalin	Sohum aefhiopicum	Kaduna State	North West	Aliyu and Lagoke, 1995
–	alachlor, butachlor, chloramben, diuron, paraquat, fluometuron, atrazine, linuron, metolachlor and simazine	Dioscorea spp,	Abia State	South East	Unamma and Melifonwu, 1986
	metolachlor and atrazine	Zea mays	Kaduna State	North West	Chikoye et al., 2004
–	Glyphosate	Imperata cylindrica	Oyo State	South West	Chikoye et al., 2005
–	rimsulfuron	Cogongrass and guineagrass	Oyo State	South West	Chikoye et al., 2007a
lumax®, primextra goldtm, gesaprim® and rhonazine®	atrazine, metolachlor and mesotrione	Zea mays	Oyo State	South West	Chikoye et al., 2009
–	atrazine and paraquat	Solanum Tuberosum	Plateau State	North Central	Deshi et al., 2019
challenge 600 sca,,lagon 575 sca, bullet 700 sc, metric 293 zcb, stallion csb, vigon 420 sca, movon 450 sca, liberator forte 360 sca, wing-p 462.5 ecc, fierce 75 wg, sencor plus 517.5 sca, merlin total 600 sca, merlin 75 wga, merlin flexx 480 sca, sencor 480 sca, callisto 480 sce, goal 4fd, codal gold 412.5 dce, primextra gold 660sce, authority 480 scb, gardoprim plus gold 500 sce	aclonifen, isoxaflutole, acetochlor, atrazine, terbuthylazine, clomazone, metribuzin, pendimethalin, diflufenican, flufenacet, flurtamone, dimethenamid-p, flumioxazin, pyroxasulfone, indaziflam, metribuzin, isoxaflutole, cyprosulfamide, mesotrione, oxyfluorfen, prometryn + s-metolachlor, sulfentrazone and terbuthylazine	Cassava	Abia State Benue State Ogun State Oyo State	South East North Central South West South West	Ekelemi et al., 2020
–	metolachlor, atrazine and pendimethlin	Zea mays	Kwara State	North Central	Imoloame, 2017
–	propaben and superunion	Zea mays	Ogun State	South West	Falade et al., 2023
–	acifluorfen and bentazon	Glycine max	Kogi State	North Central	Agahiu, 2020
–	alachlor, metolachlor, diuron and oxadiazon	Gossypium spp	Kaduna State	North West	Mahmoud et al., 2013
–	piperophos, oxadiazon, molinate, ruorodifen, bentazone and propanil	Oryza sativa	Niger State	North Central	Imeokparia, 1994
ronstar 250ec®, setoff 20wg®, rilof s 145 g/l®, setoff 63wg 2.5 rifit extra 500ec®, fernoxone 80sp® basagran 450ec® and pipset 35wp®	cinosulfuron, piperophos, propanil, prosulfuron, pretilachlor, 2,4-D and bentazon	Sorghum bicolour	Kaduna State	North West	Ishaya et al., 2007
–	pendimethalin, pyrithiobac sodium and haloxyfop	Capsicum annum	Adamawa State	North East	Mustapha et al., 2021
–	Imazaquin	Striga gesnerioides	Kano State	North West	Lado et al., 2018
–	nicosulfuron	Imperata cylindrica	Oyo State	South West	Lum et al., 2004
–	nicosulfuron	Imperata cylindrica	Oyo State Kwara State	South West North Central	Lum et al., 2005a
–	nicosulfuron	Imperata cylindrica	Oyo State Kwara State	South West North Central	Lum et al., 2005b
–	atrazine and nicosulphuron	Zea mays	Anambra State	South East	Ngonadi et al., 2023
–	trifluralin and luometuron	Cotton	Kaduna State	North West	Ogborn, 1969
–	metolachlor and atrazine	Cassava	Ogun State Oyo State	South West South West	Onasanya et al., 2021
–	atrazine	Maize	Oyo State	South West	Chikoye et al., 2006
–	Glyphosate	Imperata cylindrica	Cross River State Benue State Kogi State	South South North Central North Central	Chikoye et al., 2007b
Paraeforce® and Aminforce®	paraquat and 2, 4–D amine sl	Zea mays	Katsina State	North West	Halliru et al., 2022
	Diquat	Pistia stratiotes	Kaduna State	North West	Service, 1962
Paraeforce®	Paraquat	Telfairia occidentalis	Delta State	South South	Akpasi et al., 2023
coda gold®, galex® and pendilin®	–	Vigna unguiculata	Edo state	South South	Omovbude et al., 2019
–	glyphosate and paraquat	Theobroma cacao	Cross River State	South South	Ayegboyin et al., 2020
Primextra gold®, Galex®, Cotoran multi®, Fusilade® and Dual gold®	atrazine, s-metolachlor, metobromuron, fluometuron and fluazifop-p-butyl	Cassava	Kogi State	North Central	Agahiu et al., 2012
–	alachlor, chlordane and endosulfan	Kola nut	Ogun State Osun State Oyo State	South West	Aikpokpodion et al., 2013
–	atrazine, diuron, galex, glyphosate and primextra	Vigna Uniguiculata	Cross River State	South South	Ugbe et al., 2016
–	s matolachlor, pendimenthaline and oxyflourfen	Allium cepa	Oyo State	South West	Ibrahim et al., 2011
–	atrazine and 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acid	Root and vegetable crops	Plateau State	North Central	Gushit et al., 2013
–	s-metolachlor, pendimenthaline and butalachlor	Cowpea	Kaduna State	North West	Ibrahim, 2013
–	Ametryn	Sugarcane	Kwara State	North Central	Takim et al., 2016
–	atrazine and 2,4-d	Maize	Ondo State	South West	Akadiri et al., 2017
–	Cinosulfuron, prosulfuron, butachlor, prosufuron, and propanil	Oryza sativa	Kaduna State	North West	Haruna et al., 2017
Vestermine®, Ricepro® and Bracerplus®	cyhalofop-butyl 12 % + bspyrbac-sodium 4 %), propanil, 2,4 D isobutyl ester	Oryza sativa	Niger State	North Central	Mohammed et al., 2022
–	Metolachlor and butachlor	Sesame	Borno State	North East	Imoloame et al., 2010
–	Trifluralin, metolachlor, clethodim, quizalofop-P-ethyl, and oxyfluorfen	Glycine max	Oyo State	South West	Aluko et al., 2003
Paraforce®, Force Up®, Round Up®, Weed Crusher® and Nwurawura®	Glyphosate, atrazine paraquat dichloride, diamino-1,3,5-triazine, Isopropylamine		Oyo State	South West	Adesina et al., 2024
–	metolachlor, butachlor and pendimethalin	Groundnut	Adamawa State	North East	Koroma et al., 2021
–	Diuron, Indaziflam, Ixoxaflutole, Flumioxazin + Pyroxasulfone, Sulfentrazone, S-Metolachlor + Atrazine	Cocoyam	Oyo State	South West	Adewumi et al., 2024
–	nicosulfuron and bentazone	Maize	Adamawa State	North East	Tizhe et al., 2023
Xtra force®, 3-maize force®, pre maize®, guard force®	atrazine	Maize	Oyo State	South West	Olabode et al., 2021
–	Glyphosate	Yam	Kogi State	North Central	Ajanya et al., 2014
Diuron®, Goal tender®, Liberator Forte®, Codal Gold®, and Primextra Gold®	Oxyflurfen, Diuron, Flufenacet + diflufenican flurtamone, Prometryn + S – metolachlor, S – metolachlo + atrazine	Cocoyam	Abia State	South East	Cyprian and Onuba, 2019
–	Metolachlor, diuron, pendimethalin	Glycine max	Kwara State	North Central	Imoloame, 2014
Lasso 480EC Codal 400EC Cotoprim 425EC Cotoran-Multi 500EC Dimepax 500EC Fusilade 125EC Karmex 80WP Dual 500EC	Fluometuron, metolachlor, Fuazifop-butyl, Dimethametryne, alachlor, terbutryne, diuron	Gossypium hirsutum	Kaduna State	North West	Dadari and Kuchinda, 2004
–	Atrazine and glyphosate	Zea mays	Taraba State	North East	Abakura et al., 2015
–	Butachlor and diuron	Sesame	Adamawa State	North East	Audu et al., 2021
–	Atrazine	Maize	Rivers State	South South	Gbaraneh and Briggs, 2021
–	Alachlor and metolachlor	Groundnut	Niger State	North Central	Lagoke et al., 1981
–	Atrazine and Paraquat	Maize	Kano State	North West	Omar and Tasi’u, 2020
–	Atrazine and raft	Eleusine coracana	Kaduna State	North West	Gani and Umar, 2023
–	Atrazine	Dioscorea alata	Oyo State	South West	Olabode et al., 2015
–	Chlorthaldimethyl	Allium cepa	Kaduna State	North West	Sinha and Lagoke, 1983

 

Human health

At Jos University Teaching Hospital, Adoga et al. (2018) found that farmers (11 males and 5 females) comprised the majority of patients who had been exposed to pesticides, herbicides, and chemical fertilisers, including nitrates, which are used to increase agricultural yield. The study found that the use of these agrochemicals was associated with an elevated risk of malignancies of the sinonasal region.

Oluwole and Cheke (2009) interviewed 150 farmers in Ekiti State, 93.3% of whom were male and had an average age of 55 years. These farmers reported experiencing a range of health issues, such as headaches, nausea, vomiting, eye irritation and skin problems. Most respondents (91.3%) reported that they or a family member had encountered health problems associated with pesticide use, either during or after pesticide application. However, they reported that the misuse and abuse of herbicides caused these health issues.

Environmental health

Only five investigations (Jatau et al., 2021; Lawrence et al., 2015; Olatoye et al., 2021; Osesua et al., 2017; Owagboriaye et al., 2022) examined herbicide residues in water (Table 3). Lawrence et al. (2015), Aliyu et al. (2015), and Osesua et al. (2017) found atrazine and heptachlor in water and sediment samples in Sokoto State. Owagboriaye et al. (2022) measured the atrazine content of water sources in six Ogun State communities: Ago-Iwoye, Ijebu-Igbo, Oru, Ilaporu, Awa, and Mamu. The hazard index (HI) values for atrazine’s non-carcinogenic effects on all groups, including children and adults, were below the regulatory threshold when it came to contact with the skin or consumption. In contrast, Jatau et al. (2021) found high herbicide residues that were higher than the ADIs and MRLs set by the WHO and FAO.

Mbuk et al. (2009) discovered that the use of herbicides, such as paraquat and glyphosate, particularly glyphosate, on fields may eventually cause leaching that reduces the soil’s water-soluble K⁺ and Mg²⁺ contents. Frequent herbicide application will enhance the availability of these metals for plant absorption, leading plants grown in these soils to eventually exhibit higher concentrations of these metals, which could potentially have harmful effects (Mbuk et al., 2009). The amount of iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb) in the surface water of herbicide-treated fields was higher than what the WHO considers safe for farming and living (Oyegoke et al., 2017).

Herbicides can alter the soil and the overall population of soil microorganisms, particularly when administered more than the advised dosage and for an extended period (Ayansina and Oso, 2006; Best-Ordinioha et al., 2016; Emurotu and Anyanwu, 2016; Gbarakoro and Zabbey, 2013; Oladele and Ayodele, 2017; Orji et al., 2017; Ngozi et al., 2020; Tudararo-Aherobo and Ataikiru, 2020; Ubogu and Akponah, 2022). Soil samples included residues of 2,4-D and 4,4-bipyridine but not at high enough concentrations to have a significant negative impact on pollution (Gudam et al., 2021). Atrazine residues were found in Fadama soil at Plateau State in higher concentrations than other herbicides, according to Gushit et al. (2012). Higher imazaquin and pendimethalin concentrations stop nodulation, nitrogen fixation, and the growth of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in cowpea and soybean (Chikoye et al., 2014). According to Adesina et al. (2024), the herbicides monitored in Oyo State, such as aldrin and d-BHC, exceeded the regulatory thresholds set by European standards, presenting hazards to farmers, consumers, and ecosystems.

Abah et al. (2013b) and Onasanya et al. (2021) found that the attempt to improve cassava agricultural output through the inappropriate use of chemical fertilisers and herbicides led to the accumulation of trace metals in soils and cassava roots. Consumption of cassava roots containing excessive amounts of trace metals may expose people to the dangers of food poisoning. Abah et al. (2013a) demonstrated that the intensive use of chemical fertilisers and herbicides in bean–yam intercropping as well as in bean cultivation can result in the accumulation of heavy metals in soils and bean seeds. High levels of cadmium, pH, iron, magnesium, and chlorine exceed the established threshold limit due to herbicide application and are significant contributors to lake pollution, posing potential current and future issues.

Ighere (2020) showed that the pH levels of herbicide-treated (HT) soils are lower than those of non-treated soils. Furthermore, HT soils exhibit low soil air, inadequate drainage, high water retention capacity, and a scarcity or absence of soil organisms. The organic matter content of soils treated with herbicides significantly decreased compared to untreated soils. When herbicides, such as atrazine, primextra, paraquat, and glyphosate, were used in the study by Sebiomo et al. (2011), soil dehydrogenase activity decreased significantly compared to when the plants were not treated.

In contrast to the long-lasting presence of atrazine in the soil, as documented by many scientists, Sangoyomi et al. (2014) found that plots treated with atrazine in four planting seasons had the highest number of fungal genera by the end of the third survey session. The compounds Gramoxone, Dacthal, Preforan, and Dual did not have any negative impacts on soil microorganisms (Ekundayo, 2003). Tudararo-Aherobo and Ataikiru (2020) found that herbicides had no effect on pH, total organic carbon, or nitrate levels. However, extended herbicide use had a detrimental effect on bacterial and fungal populations. Musa and Salem (2020) found no impact of herbicide application on the variability of soil physical characteristics across several sites. Furthermore, the data showed that locations without herbicides experienced elevated initial and cumulative infiltration rates. According to Saleh et al. (2023b), using herbicides at the field-recommended rate did not hurt the bacterial load at a site in Kaduna State. It can be deduced from these findings that although herbicide application does contribute to the agricultural process, it also has ecological consequences, adversely affecting soil fertility and microorganisms and disturbing the soil ecology.

Animal health

Glyphosate can destroy beneficial arthropods, such as termites, according to Ekaye et al. (2022). This phenomenon is particularly evident at concentrations exceeding the recommended levels. Oluwole and Cheke (2009) found that farmers observed a decline in the quantity of beneficial insects and other animals. Reports of abnormal drops in the populations of birds and mammals near their fields corroborated this. Similarly, Ubani et al. (2020) found that the herbicide samples (paraquat dichloride, glyphosate, butachlor, and 2, 4-D amine 720G/L) decreased the acetylcholinesterase activity of Achatina achatina and that herbicides were detrimental to snails collected from Enugu State.

Another area of concern has been the impact of paraquat on aquatic species in the Nigerian food chain (Shallangwa and Auta, 2008). Researchers have linked their use to the deaths of catfish (Kori-Siakpere et al., 2007) and Nile tilapia (Ajani et al., 2007; Fidelis et al., 2012). According to Alarape et al. (2023), glyphosate residues were present in all 75 fish tissue samples collected from specific fish markets in the city of Ibadan. Furthermore, all residue concentrations were higher than the suggested MRL of 0.01 mg/L. Akan et al. (2019) and Olatoye et al. (2021) identified glyphosate, atrazine, butachlor, metolachlor, paraquat, propachlor, propanil, and alachlor in fish samples.

 

Table 3
Studies that detected herbicide concentrations in the environment

Herbicide	Region	Zone	Values detected	US EPA limit	Reference
Atrazine	Ogun State	South West	0.01mg/L, 0,03mg/L, 0.04mg/L, 0.08mg/L	0.03mg/L	Owagboriaye et al., 2022
Butachlor, glyphosate, paraquat, propachlor, propanil, alachlor, metalochlor, atrazine	Adamawa State	North East	0.16mg/L (B), 0.23 mg/L (G), 0.19 mg/L (Pa), 0.21 mg/L (Pr), 0.15 mg/L (At), 0.16 mg/L (Pro), 0.12 mg/L (Ala), 0.12 mg/L (Meta)	0.1 mg/L (B), 2.0 mg/L (G), 0.5 mg/L (Pa), 0.05 mg/L (At), 2.0 mg/L (Pro), 0.2 mg/L (Ala), 0.05 mg/L (Meta)	Jatau et al., 2021
Atrazine	Lagos State Ogun State Oyo State	South West	1.8µg/kg, 1.4 µg/kg, 1.6 µg/kg	6 µg/kg	Olatoye et al., 2021
Paraquat and glyphosate	Benue State	North Central	–	–	Mbuk et al., 2009
Butachlor and bispyribac – sodium sc	Ebonyi State	South East	–	–	Orji et al., 2017
Glyphosate	Rivers State	South South	–	–	Best-Ordinioha et al., 2016
Atrazine, paraquat dichloride, 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acids and oxadiazon	Plateau State	North Central	–	–	Gushit et al., 2012
4,4 –bypridine and 2,4 –d	Plateau State	North Central	–	–	Gudam et al., 2021
Lindane, heptachlor, aldrin, endosulfan, carbofuran, 4,4-ddt, dieldrin, endrin	Edo State	South South	–	–	Edo-Taiwo and Aisien, 2023
Imazaquin and pendimethalin	Kaduna State	North West	–	–	Chikoye et al., 2014
Atrazine and metolachlor	Oyo State	South West	–	–	Ayansina and Oso, 2006

 

Additionally, Nwani et al. (2013) showed that butachlor exhibited toxicity towards Tilapia zillii. Erhunmwunse et al. (2014) found that post-juvenile African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) had different amounts of glyphosate-herbicide in their brain tissue. Clarias gariepinus plants were exposed to low levels of paraquat in the lab, which caused macrocytic-normochromic anaemia (Abubakar and Ibrahim, 2022). According to additional research (Ayanda et al., 2015; Babatunde et al., 2021; Omitoyin et al., 2006), paraquat is toxic to aquatic life, worsens environmental deterioration, produces pollution, and jeopardises the sustainability of the ecosystem. Olaleye et al. (1993) found that fish returned to the area in Kofawei Creek, Ondo State, where herbicides had been used to eliminate water hyacinth. In this study, the researchers found that there was an increase in the number of fish compostition at the treated area after herbicidal treatment.

The combination of pesticides sprayed by farmers on cocoa farms builds up in the environment and in the tissues of amphibians, according to Edo-Taiwo and Aisien (2020). The pesticide concentrations in various samples, including amphibian tissues, silt, and soil, generally followed the same trend.

Biocontrol

As indicated by Fayinminnu et al. (2013), crude cassava water extract from bulk, MS6 and TMS 30555 varieties was able to successfully operate as a post-emergence herbicide against weeds during the crucial early growth stage of cowpea. This study also showed that crude cassava water extract, due to its widespread availability and rapid biodegradation, could serve as a viable substitute for synthetic herbicides.

In a study conducted in Ogun State by Fadeyi et al. (2023), the application of moringa leaves inhibited weed growth and survival. Eke-Okoroet al. (2017) found that intercrop establishments with cucumbers and cassava had much lower weed populations and dry weights than establishments with only cassava, regardless of the type of cassava grown or how many cucumbers were planted.

Aso et al. (2021) concluded that their chosen bacterial strains could be used for bioremediation of glyphosate-contaminated soil, sediments, and ponds over a wide range of environmental conditions. Glyphosate-utilising bacterial species, including Bacillus cereus, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, and Enterobacter aerogenes, were optimised to tolerate the pesticide concentration at the different parameters selected. According to Saleh et al. (2023a), the bacteria Aeromonas sp. and Acidovorax sp. can be used to biodegrade glyphosate and paraquat; however, more research is needed to determine whether these microorganisms can also break down other herbicides.

Olu-Arotiowa et al. (2019) reported that the use of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, Aspergillus niger, and chicken droppings as bioaugmentation and biostimulation agents increased or sped up the rate of atrazine biodegradation in soil and, consequently, its removal from contaminated soil.

In their study, Makut and Ibrahim (2021) found that the most common microorganisms in herbicide-contaminated farmland in Keffi were Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain CIFRI DTSB1 and Entrobacter asburiae RD-DAROS-04. They also found fungus species, such as Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium redolens, degraded herbicides in the region. Sebiomo and Banjo (2020) demonstrated that microorganisms effectively utilised herbicides as a carbon source and for their developmental processes.

Therefore, we can use native indigenous microorganisms for bioremediation of herbicide-contaminated soils. Bacillus safensis strain BUK_BCH_BTE6, discovered in Kano, digested 88.85% of 400 mg/L atrazine and to tolerate 2 ppm heavy metals, according to Muhammad et al. (2023). Because it is an effective and highly tolerant atrazine degrader, we can use this isolate for the bioremediation of atrazine-polluted sites. Moneke et al. (2010) isolated and identified two bacterial species, P. fluorescens and Acetobacter sp., capable of biodegrading glyphosate. These isolates’ ability to efficiently metabolise glyphosate provides a solution for removing these chemicals from the environment. Therefore, the isolates’ ability to endure and proliferate in the presence of elevated levels of herbicide makes them ideal for bioremediation of glyphosate-contaminated habitats.

Adewuyi and Offar (2021) found that the factors influencing farmers’ acceptance of new technology included the farmers’ age, educational attainment, farm size, access to extension services, farming experience, and cooperative society membership. These findings suggest increasing farmers’ awareness of bio-herbicide technology.

 

DISCUSSION

Of all pesticides, herbicides comprise the highest proportion (47.5%), followed by insecticides (29.5%), fungicides (17.5%), and other insecticides (5.5%) (Sharma et al., 2019). About 33% of agricultural products use pesticides in their production. More than 80% of pesticides used to protect crops are herbicides (Ferrero and Tinarelli, 2007; Sitaramaraju et al., 2014). There have been reports of negative environmental effects from HU. Offsite transportation, coupled with the growing use of herbicides with high potential mobility, can lead to significant environmental issues. Herbicide use to manage weeds in residential areas of urban environments has expanded significantly in recent years, particularly in Nigeria (Bulu et al., 2019), where 99% of pesticide-related deaths occur (Gunnell et al. 2007; Ojo, 2016). One million people worldwide lost their lives because of pesticide poisoning in 1999. According to the WHO, 3 million people are poisoned by pesticides annually (OECD, 2008; WHO, 2016). Ghazi et al. (2023) discussed at length the different ways that herbicides affect people’s health.

In many countries, humans depend on surface freshwater for drinking, enjoyment, and the production of economically important foods (Wilson and Carpenter, 1999). Human activities have put increasing pressure on waterbodies. One such pressure is the contamination of these waterbodies by a range of inorganic and organic pollutants from farmlands, which are farm inputs that typically wash into these waterbodies and build up to the detriment of aquatic life (Shushkova et al., 2012). Herbicides make up most of these organic pollutants (Dorigo et al., 2007). The maximum residual level of organochlorine pesticides in soil, sediment, and amphibian tissues is currently unknown in Nigeria (Egbe et al., 2021).

Several studies have also linked herbicides to the quantitative and qualitative loss of significant soil bacteria involved in decomposition, nitrogen cycling, fixing, and other beneficial soil activities (Min et al., 2002). We have a poor understanding of how herbicides affect microbial diversity, nitrification, denitrification, sulphur oxidation, plant nutrient mineralisation, crop residue decomposition, and the quantitative and qualitative aspects of soil organic matter equilibrium (Barman and Varshney, 2008). To lower risks, it is advisable to discourage the system from weighing the costs and advantages of using fertilisers and herbicides that include harmful chemicals and to promote research into the development of safer alternatives (Adoga et al., 2018).

The socioeconomic factors that affect herbicide use by maize farmers in Kaduna State were household income and educational attainment; the institutional factors that affected herbicide use by the farmers were membership in associations and extension contacts (Oyinbo et al., 2013). A misconception exists among crop farmers in Ikorodu regarding the inherent risks associated with improper HU, both for their own well-being and the environment (Falade et al., 2022). The people tasked with educating farmers ought to put more effort into teaching them, particularly when it comes to teaching them how to use herbicides responsibly and not to squander them because doing so will reduce the efficiency of their output (Nwahia et al., 2020).

Herbicides have significant and concerning effects on human health. The consumption of contaminated food, prolonged exposure to toxic compounds, and environmental exposure can all be harmful to one’s health. It is imperative to determine the effectiveness of herbicide products for the intended purposes while simultaneously safeguarding pesticide users, consumers, crops, livestock, and the environment. In Nigeria, agrochemicals are widely utilised but are not well regulated. Regulation of any kind does not eliminate the difficulty of monitoring and evaluation. Serious attempts are underway to establish sensible policy standards as environmental preservation gains increasing popularity.

Developed nations, such as the United States, Canada and the European Union (EU), have enacted new legislation restricting agrochemical use (Nnamonu and Onekutu, 2015). The EU only releases active substances registered on its list of approved active substances into the environment, which each EU Member State has subsequently authorised as plant protection products. Authorisation is granted only if proposed uses are not expected (or known) to have harmful effects on environmental, animal, or human health (Storck et al., 2017). The Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development in Nigeria (FAO, 2024) developed an agriculture promotion policy. The policy aims to enhance access to information on, promote the use of safe alternatives to highly hazardous pesticides (e.g., organic (natural) pesticides), improve regulation, inspection, and enforcement of rational agrochemical use, and improve quality assurance and residue testing. In addition, the Nigerian National Assembly enacted a biosafety law in 2015 that promoted the growth of genetically modified (GM) crops (Kargbo et al., 2020).

The global usage of pesticides and herbicides has significantly decreased with the introduction of GM crops, which have a positive effect on human and animal health as well as the environment (Brookes and Barfoot, 2017). Brookes and Barfoot (2017), which used the Environmental Impact Quotient to compare the effects of pesticides and herbicides on conventional and genetically modified farming systems, showed that the traits of GM crops greatly reduce the damage they do to the environment when they are used.

However, despite the policy’s establishment, there are no strict laws guarding herbicide use in the country. We suggest implementing specific regulations for herbicide use in areas, especially those near drinking water, amending the country’s constitution to strengthen the foundations of herbicide risk assessment, promoting scientific knowledge to enhance societal acceptance of the herbicide authorisation process, conducting ongoing environmental risk assessment studies, and establishing clear policies for the development, regulation, and implementation of biopesticides in Nigeria. Lastly, the HU database should be established in Nigeria.

Microorganisms, such as pathogens and other bacteria, or phytotoxins generated from microbes, insects, or plant extracts, form the basis of bioherbicides, a natural weed control method (Bailey, 2014). Recently, Hoagland et al. (2007) recognised bioherbicides as an essential component of weed management; however, Singh et al. (2009) cautioned against exclusively substituting them with chemical herbicides.

As scientific studies increasingly demonstrate their effectiveness, the use of bioherbicides, perceived as safer and “greener,” has gained traction (Hasan et al., 2021). When rules severely restrict or forbid herbicide use, bioherbicides will be invaluable in managing weeds in regions where environmental preservation is the major goal of management, and herbicides are ineffective (Kremer, 2005).

To preserve human health, it is imperative to limit herbicide use through the adoption of more sustainable and alternative farming practices, such as integrated pest control and organic farming. Raising awareness of the risks associated with pesticides and the benefits of environmentally friendly farming methods among farmers, consumers and legislators is also essential to creating a safer and healthier environment for all (Rathee and Dubey, 2023). To prevent herbicide resistance, lower production costs, and boost crop output in organic horticulture, integrated weed management systems can incorporate bioherbicide technology (Cai and Gu, 2016).

 

RECOMMENDATIONS

• Farmers must use caution and adhere to the recommended dosage, application method, and other guidelines while applying herbicides.
• Other methods should be used to remove weeds, instead of using herbicides unless required.
• To protect farmers and the environment, appropriate and effective government regulations should be in place regarding the herbicides that farmers can use in the nation.
• Indigenous private sector participation in the development, testing, and distribution of botanicals ought to be encouraged.
• To ensure that the public benefits as much as possible from these locally accessible resources, the government should create policies that support and safeguard regional businesses that might be engaged in the processing and sale of botanical pesticides (Nnamonu and Onekutu, 2015).
• To safeguard crops, Nigeria now uses many hazardous pesticides. The rules prohibiting these types of pesticides are either completely or severely restricted; however, they are not upheld. The number of pesticide-related deaths will decline with the tight enforcement of this rule and the planned use and promotion of green insecticides, which are far safer for the environment, food consumers, and applicators (Lale, 2002).
• To raise public understanding of the alternatives for synthetic pesticides, the Nigerian government should support vigorous enlightenment programs in the public and commercial sectors (Nnamonu and Onekutu, 2015).
• The Nigerian cropping system should support and encourage the use of organic weed control measures. Lastly, Nigerian farmers should be educated about the importance of implementing organic weed control measures, which are intended to improve soil fertility, eliminate environmental pollution and soil degradation, provide healthy farm produce for humans and their animals, and effectively control weeds (Ansa and Wiro, 2020).

 

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Nigeria is known for its extensive use of herbicides. Despite the positive impact these chemicals have on crop production, we should not overlook their harmful effects on non-target organisms. Scientists, medical professionals, and other interested parties should collaborate to develop a strategy to reduce the use of these harmful substances in Nigeria. The concept of “One Health” refers to the connection between human, animal, and environmental health. This strategy is required to reduce the risk associated with herbicide use. The focus should be on creating safer weed control strategies. In addition, awareness initiatives must concentrate on educating rural farmers and distributors regarding safe HA techniques and the environmental consequences of misuse.

 

Author Contributions: Conceptualization of the manuscript and development of the methodology: EAO and GOA; Data collection and curation: EAO and GOO; Data analysis and interpretation: EAO and GOA; Writing of the orginal manuscript: EAO and GOO; Writing, review and editing: GOA and OOA. All authors declare that they have read and approved the publication of the manuscript in this present form

Funding: There was no external funding for this study.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

 

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