Issue 4 (204)/2025

ALSE and ACS Style
Amadu Dohbia, A.-R.; Adu-Acheampong, S.; Blankson, E.R; Kankam, F. Studies on cropping systems and pesticide regimes in Tolon, in the Northern Region of Ghana. Journal of Applied Life Sciences and Environment 2025, 58 (4), 565-576.
https://doi.org/10.46909/alse-584193

AMA Style
Amadu Dohbia A-R, Adu-Acheampong S, Blankson ER, Kankam F. Studies on cropping systems and pesticide regimes in Tolon, in the Northern Region of Ghana. Journal of Applied Life Sciences and Environment. 2025; 58 (4): 565-576.
https://doi.org/10.46909/alse-584193

Chicago/Turabian Style
Amadu, Dohbia, Abdul-Rahaman, Samuel Adu-Acheampong, Emmanuel Robert Blankson, and Frederick Kankam. 2025. “Studies on cropping systems and pesticide regimes in Tolon, in the Northern Region of Ghana” Journal of Applied Life Sciences and Environment 58, no. 4: 565-576.
https://doi.org/10.46909/alse-584193

Studies on cropping systems and pesticide regimes in Tolon, in the Northern Region of Ghana

Abdul-Rahaman Amadu Dohbia¹, Samuel Adu-Acheampong², Emmanuel Robert Blankson², Frederick Kankam³

¹Department of Crop Science, University for Development Studies [UDS], Nyankpala-Tamale, Ghana; email: foafcs@uds.edu.gh

²Department of Animal Biology and Conservation Science, University of Ghana [UG], Legon Accra; email: dabcs@ug.edu.gh

³Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, University for Development Studies [UDS], Nyankpala-Tamale, Ghana; email: foafcs@uds.edu.gh

*Correspondence: samueladuacheampong81@gmail.com; sadu-acheampong@ug.edu.gh 

Received: Sep. 24, 2025. Revised: Oct. 22, 2025. Accepted: Nov. 21, 2025. Published online: Jan. 12, 2026

ABSTRACT. Although pesticide use is relatively low in Africa, most African farmers who do use pesticides do not use them safely, in part due to the cropping systems that are employed. Specifically, the cropping systems dictate pesticide application regimes that can potentially expose farmers and consumers to chemical risks under indiscriminate applications. This study aimed to identify the dominant agricultural production type, the pattern of pesticide use, and the handling of empty pesticide containers, and to determine the relationship between pesticide use and cropping systems. We specifically documented pesticide application practices and cropping systems based on the administration of a stratified questionnaire to 120 farmers in a cross-sectional survey. The participants were selected through multistage random sampling and the results were analysed using SPSS Statistics. Most of the respondents (89%) practiced continuous cultivation of maize and persistently used pesticides (>50%) with little or no adherence to safety protocols. There was a strong positive correlation between continuous cropping and pesticide use (r = 0.71, p = 0.02). In addition, most of the respondents (≈ 65%) re-used empty pesticide containers to store seeds or for other domestic purposes; the remaining respondents discarded them on their fields or nearby dumping sites or gave them to others. Overall, Tolon is dominated by continuous cropping by farmers coupled with the indiscriminate use of pesticides, which threaten environmental health and are a cause for environmental concern. The current agrochemical uses in Ghana present a high environmental and health risk, especially in areas of high agricultural production such as Tolon.

Keywords: container; cropping systems; farm; pesticides; respondent.

 

INTRODUCTION

Crop protection has been practiced through the use of pesticides since ancient times, with records indicating that the Samarians used Sulphur for pest management as early as 2500 BC (Jaison and Kannan, 2024). The earliest known documented records for intensive pesticide use date back to the pre-industrial revolutionary period. During the 15th to 17th centuries, farmers in Prussia, France, and other states used arsenic and phosphorus to control pests (Polyrakis, 2009). Africa and other developing countries in Asia and South America account for the lowest usage of agrochemicals, specifically pesticides and fertilisers in agricultural production (Anaduaka et al., 2023). This is due to factors such as lack of capital to acquire these chemicals coupled with the fact that many farmers in developing countries practice subsistence farming. Some farmers are compelled to reduce their production because they lack reliable markets and adequate storage facilities, particularly for perishable commodities (Anaduaka et al., 2023). Nevertheless, pesticide use across Africa remains problematic. Although the continent accounts for less than 5% of the global pesticide market and under 4% of total global usage, the pesticides that are applied are often used indiscriminately or without adherence to recommended guidelines. Recent reports of pesticides used in developing countries – and especially in areas in the Northern Region of Ghana with similar production dynamics – indicate heavy reliance on pesticides (Demi and Sicchia, 2021; Imoro et al., 2019). Pesticide use has long been integral to intensive crop production systems, particularly in commercial agriculture where maximising revenue is a central objective (Tudi et al., 2021). Production systems that rely heavily on pesticides influence farmers’ decision-making, often encouraging them to prioritise immediate crop protection over considerations of environmental or human health (Alavanja, 2009; Levine, 2007). For example, in monocropping systems, pest populations can build up rapidly due to the continuous availability of a preferred host crop. Farmers commonly respond to such outbreaks with quick-acting control measures, including repeated applications of pesticides. Under these conditions, indiscriminate or excessive pesticide use becomes more likely, contributing to problems such as pest resistance, chemical residues, and environmental contamination, particularly in communities with limited knowledge of pesticide risks (Damalas and Koutroubas, 2016; Putra et al., 2020).

An equally important issue is the safety standards that farmers should observe when applying pesticides, especially under continuous cropping systems and with the continuous use of pesticides. This is because of the increased likelihood of encountering active ingredients in pesticides at the time of application, mixing, or carrying residues home (Ben Khadda et al., 2021; Dereumeaux et al., 2020; Huyen et al., 2020; Lari et al., 2021; Marete et al., 2021; Shammi et al., 2020). Moreover, developing countries are more likely to use banned, more toxic, and environmentally persistent pesticides for pest management (Ali et al., 2021; Sarkar et al., 2021; Sharma et al., 2020). There are also problems associated with mislabelling pesticides, ineffective enforcement of regulations, poor knowledge of the types of pesticides, overuse, and improper management (Andersson and Isgren, 2021; Centner, 2021; Imoro et al., 2019; Zaller, 2020).

This study aimed to investigate the predominant cropping systems in the study area (Tolon, in the Northern Region of Ghana), the extent of reliance on pesticides, and the degree to which safety protocols are followed during pesticide application. Furthermore, it examined the relationship between the type of cropping system and pesticide practices, with the goal of providing best-practice recommendations for farming communities in Ghana. We hypothesised that the type of cropping system significantly influences both the level of pesticide reliance and the adherence to safety protocols when using synthetic pesticides.

 

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study area

The Tolon district – within the Guinea Savannah Agro-ecological zone in the Northern Region of Ghana (9°25′51.6″N 1°3′53.64″W; Figure 1; Inusah et al., 2015) – was selected because it is known for commercial production of maize and other crops such as groundnuts, and large quantities of pesticides are used. The Guinea Savannah Agro-ecological zone has a bimodal seasonal regime (i.e., wet and dry) with the wet season starting in April/May and ending in October/November; the rest of the year remains dry. The mean annual rainfall within Tolon ranges from 900 to 1000 mm, with the highest occurrence in September (Jakpa et al., 2019). The temperature in Tolon ranges from a maximum of approximately 36°C in March to a minimum of around 25°C in December and January during the harmattan period (Antwi et al., 2022). The main crops produced in Tolon are maize, groundnuts, and rice, and the majority of the farmers are small scale (Nakasone et al., 2021).

 

 

Study design

This study employed a cross-sectional design to examine the distribution of some key variables regarding the use of pesticides and the types of cropping systems used within the study area. This approach allowed for a quick analysis of the survey results without requiring the survey be repeated (Wang and Cheng, 2020). Moreover, this approach was cost and time effective. One hundred and twenty participants were randomly selected through a systematic sampling technique: 1 in every 5 farmers encountered was administered the questionnaire.

Specifically, farmers with at least 5 years of experience, aged 18 years and above (the legal age to give consent), and managing a farm of at least 0.5 acres were selected. Twenty farmers were included from each of six locations within the district: Kpalsogu, Lingbunga, Kpeindua, Tibogu, and Kpalgun. Care was taken to ensure that the selection of farmers was not focused on convenience but rather purely based on randomisation and willingness to participate. The questionnaires were administered during the rainy season (May–August), when farming activities are highest.

Data collection and analysis

Stratified questionnaires were administered through face-to-face interviews to solicit direct responses from the participants. The data collected covered information such as protection used to control pests, habit of reading and or observing protocols meant for pesticide handling, disposal of unused pesticide containers, and types of production systems in the study area.

The data were analysed with SPSS Statistics version 23.0. An independent two-sample t-test was conducted to determine whether the farmers’ responses differed with respect to the practice of continuous cropping versus fallow systems. Additionally, Pearson correlation analysis was used to examine the relationship between cropping systems and pesticide usage, based on the farmers’ reported frequency of pesticide application. All statistical tests were conducted at a 5% significance level.

Ethical issues

The study received ethical approval from the University for University for Development Studies ethics committee before it commenced. It was conducted based on the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Each participant provided informed consent and was ensured that their information would be kept confidential.

 

RESULTS

Cropping systems in Tolon

The survey results indicated continuous cropping is practiced significantly more often than fallow farming in the study area (degrees of freed [df] = 118, d = 0.87, t = 3.1, p < 0.05; Figure 2).

 

 

Pest control methods

Regarding pest control methods, 30 (≈25%) respondents depend solely on synthetic pesticides, while 60 (≈ 50%) depend on both synthetic and local control methods (e.g., locally prepared pesticides from local herbs, ash, and manual weeding), and 20 (16.7%) only use local control methods. Overall, the use of pesticides significantly more common than not using pesticides (df = 118, d = 0.79, t = 2.1, p < 0.05; Figure 3).

Among the respondents, 65 (54.2%) neither read nor observe directions or instructions on pesticide labels, 34 (28.3%) read but do not follow the directions, 11 (9.2%) apply the pesticides based on previous experiences, and only 10 (8.3%) read and follow the pesticides labels and instructions (Figure 4).

Pesticide container disposal methods

We found that 78 (65.0%) respondents reuse their empty pesticides containers, 26 (21.7%) discard them on their farms, 11 (9.2%) discard their empty pesticide containers in nearby fields including river bodies, and 5 (4.2%) give them away to other people (Figure 5).

Pearson correlation analysis revealed a strong, positive association between cropping systems and pesticides usage (r = 0.71, p < 0.05).

 

 

 

 

Knowledge – attitude – practice

We categorised the pesticide application practices of the farmers into four groups. The first group applies pesticides based on knowledge gained from previous handling and application experiences rather than following instructions on the product label. The second group neither reads labels nor follows any protocols, applying pesticides at their own discretion. The third group reads labels and strictly adheres to the recommended instructions, while the fourth group reads the labels but did not follow the instructions when applying pesticides. Some respondents who do not follow label instructions reported that the recommendations are ineffective in controlling pests, while others indicated they cannot read the instructions. However, we did not quantify these responses.

 

DISCUSSION

Cropping systems in Tolon

Most of the farmers in the study area practice continuous cropping and apply pesticides continuously, indicating a high reliance on pesticides in the study area. Such a situation can possibly lead to adverse impacts such as resistance of pests to pesticides and accumulation of pesticide residues in soils, water bodies, and foods produced in the area, as reported in previous studies (Dhananjayan et al., 2020; Sharma et al., 2019, Ali et al., 2021; Sarkar et al., 2024). However, there have been no studies conducted in Tolon to examine these issues.

Pest control methods in Tolon

The pattern of heavy reliance on synthetic pesticides increases the chances of farmers being exposed to chemicals and can lead to other adverse impacts such as acute and chronic illnesses, in addition to environmental contamination and pest resistance.

Other studies from northern Ghana have also revealed that farmers rely heavily on pesticides during farming seasons (Imoro et al., 2019; Demi and Sicchia, 2021), although those authors did not examine the correlation between cropping or faming systems and pesticide usage. Past studies have shown that when farmers have a great reliance on pesticides, especially in developing countries, there are also high levels of environmental contamination, pest resistance, and acute illnesses in those areas (Matthews, 2016; Ali et al., 2021; Khatri et al., 2024; Sarkar et al., 2024; Singh, 2024; Zhou et al., 2025).

Observance of safety protocols during pesticide applications

Around 90% of the respondents do not have the ability to read, refuse to follow, or negligently do not observe safety protocols during pesticide applications. This behaviour may stem from their low level of literacy and the general lack of education on pesticide use. This observation is consistent with studies conducted in similar environments and other geographic regions (Demi and Sicchia, 2021; Imoro et al., 2019;). Such a situation could be a worrying sign of serious harm to environmental health and biodiversity in the area. For example, Imoro et al. (2019) reported that most farmers in Tamale, also in the Northern Region of Ghana, do not wear any protective clothing, shoes, or masks that cover their nose during pesticide application.

The respondents in our study also indicated a lack of basic safety and hygienic practices when handling pesticides. These pesticide application practices may lead to the development of acute illnesses in the applicators, who are mostly farmers (Boedeker et al., 2020; Tudi, 2021; Zhou et al., 2025).

Disposal of pesticide containers

We noted that most of the respondents do not dispose of pesticide containers properly. Many reuse the containers to store seeds (for cultivation purposes), soil, plant materials, and for other domestic uses. Imoro et al. (2019) observed similar behaviours, although the practice was not as widespread compared with the present study.

Such trends are disturbing because they eventually lead to pesticide spillage and possible environmental contamination that may end up travelling up the food chain to humans (Curren and Maris, 2024; Li et al., 2021; Ukaogo et al., 2020;).

Moreover, research has shown that leftover pesticides from discarded pesticides containers (even when rinsed) can cause high levels of environmental contamination, raising serious concerns about pesticides handling in the study area (Brinco et al., 2022; Latt et al., 2023; Mohafrash and Mossa, 2024).

 

CONCLUSIONS

This study sheds light on the need to pay attention to the commercial farm activities of rural communities. We found that high agricultural production has a strong positive correlation with intensive, indiscriminate use of pesticides.

This involves handling high volumes of pesticides and failure to properly dispose of empty pesticide containers, which may compromise both human and environmental health. Hence, there is a need for proper policy on how to handle pesticides.

We specifically recommend offering well-structured pesticide safety training and other such educational programmes on pesticide use safety for farmers in Tolon. We also encourage proper enforcement of pesticide sales regulations, community recycling or container-return programmes, and literacy-appropriate labelling to ensure safe disposal of pesticides containers and promoting specific integrated pest management practices in the study area. We further recommend that farmers install biobeds and other affordable systems to monitor and control pesticide residue contamination in Tolon.

 

Limitations of the study

This study has a few limitations that should be mentioned: self-report bias, potential researcher bias in selecting respondents, and potential confounding factors such as climate change and financial capacity of farmers. These limitations could have influenced the results of this study.

Acknowledgment: We, the authors of this paper, would like to express our gratitude towards all respondents for given their consent and participating in this study. We would also like to thank the staff of MOFA in Tolon for their assistance.

Author contributions: Conceptualization: SAA, FK; Methodology: AAD, SAA, FK; Data analysis: AAD, SAA, ERB; Investigation: AAD, SAA; Supervision: SAA, FK; Writing – original draft: AAD, SAA; Writing – review and editing: SAA, ERB. All authors declare that they have read and approved the publication of the manuscript in this present form.

Funding: There was no external funding for this project.

Informed consent: The study was conducted after ethical approval was obtained from the University for Development Studies ethics committee at the campus level in accordance with the principles of Helsinki Declaration.

Data availability statement: The data underlying this study are not publicly available due to institutional restrictions but may be accessed subject to approval by the relevant authority.

Conflicts of interest: The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article.

 

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