Issue 3 (203)/2025

ALSE and ACS Style
Hoque, Md.M.; Ritika, A.K.; Bhuyan, Md.S. Impact of climate change on sea-going fishers: a case study from Paikgachha Upazila, Khulna, Bangladesh. Journal of Applied Life Sciences and Environment 2025, 58 (3), 411-435.
https://doi.org/10.46909/alse-583183

AMA Style
Hoque MdM, Ritika AK, Bhuyan MdS. Impact of climate change on sea-going fishers: a case study from Paikgachha Upazila, Khulna, Bangladesh. Journal of Applied Life Sciences and Environment. 2025; 58 (3): 411-435.
https://doi.org/10.46909/alse-583183

Chicago/Turabian Style
Hoque, Md Minarul, Afifat Khanam Ritika, and Md. Simul Bhuyan. 2025. “Impact of climate change on sea-going fishers: a case study from Paikgachha Upazila, Khulna, Bangladesh.” Journal of Applied Life Sciences and Environment 58, no. 3: 411-435.
https://doi.org/10.46909/alse-583183

Impact of climate change on sea-going fishers: a case study from Paikgachha Upazila, Khulna, Bangladesh

Md Minarul HOQUE^1,2*, Afifat Khanam RITIKA^2,3 and Md. Simul BHUYAN¹

¹Bangladesh Oceanographic Research Institute, Cox’s Bazar-4730, Bangladesh; e-mail: simulbhuyan@gmail.com

²Bangladesh University of Professionals, Dhaka-1216, Bangladesh

³Bangladesh Institute of Maritime Research and Development, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh; email: ibnatritika@yahoo.com

*Correspondence: minar71@gmail.com

Received: May 21, 2025. Revised: Jul. 09, 2025. Accepted: Jul. 28, 2025. Published online: Sep. 29, 2025

ABSTRACT. Climate change can severely impact fishermen’s community due to the nature of their profession. This study investigates the impacts of climate change on sea-going fishers in Paikgachha Upazila, Khulna, Bangladesh. A total of 60 randomly selected fishers were interviewed using semi-structured questionnaires and focus group discussions to assess climate-induced changes in their livelihoods. Field data reveal that 100% of the respondents experienced reduced fishing duration due to frequent storms, erratic sea behaviour, and early seasonal changes. Around 40% of fishers have shifted to alternative professions, and approximately 40% of local residents have migrated over the past 20 years due to climate-related livelihood disruption. In 2022, 90% of fishers lost their prawn farms owing to saline water intrusion and elevated water temperatures. Climatic trend analysis using Bangladesh Meteorological Department data confirms an increasing pattern in mean temperature per year (+0.014℃) and rainfall (+7.22 mmyr^-1) in coastal regions over the past three decades. The findings underscore the urgent need for targeted adaptation strategies, safety protocols, and livelihood diversification to support the resilience of this vulnerable population.

Keywords: climate change; coastal Bangladesh; fishing duration; profession shift; salinity; sea-going fishers.

 

INTRODUCTION

Climate change represents one of the most pressing global challenges, with far-reaching consequences across ecological, economic, and social systems (Banu and Fazal, 2025; Jha and Dev, 2024; Upadhyay, 2020; Moser and Hart, 2015).

Defined as long-term alterations in temperature, precipitation, and weather patterns driven primarily by anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, climate change has intensified since the Industrial Revolution due to the combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas (Filonchyk et al., 2024; Radunsky and Cadman, 2021). Among the most vulnerable to these changes are small-scale sea-going fishing communities, whose livelihoods are directly tied to the marine environment and whose exposure to extreme weather. Salinity intrusion and ecological shifts is immediate and often life-threatening (Chengula, 2023; Islam et al., 2020).

Bangladesh, located along the climate-sensitive Bay of Bengal (BoB), is particularly exposed to climate extremes. The country possesses a maritime area of 118,813 sq. km, nearly equal to its landmass, and relies heavily on marine fisheries for economic and food security (Alam, 2024; Hoque, 2020). Marine fisheries contribute significantly to the national GDP (3.69%) and employ millions of coastal dwellers, particularly in the southwest regions such as Khulna (Nasreen et al., 2023; Ritika, 2022a). However, increasing climate-induced phenomena, such as tropical cyclones, sea level rise, salinity intrusion, and ocean acidification, threaten both the productivity and viability of this sector (Alam and Mallick, 2022; Miah et al., 2025).

Empirical studies have shown that over the last two decades, climate change has led to more intense cyclones (e.g., Sidr, Aila, Amphan), erratic sea conditions, and declining fish stocks in the BoB (Hoque et al., 2019; Saha and Khan, 2014).

While data from meteorological agencies highlight trends in temperature rise, rainfall variability, and storm frequency, few studies critically examine how these shifts are perceived by fishers or how such perceptions influence their adaptive behaviour, health, or livelihood decisions (Dasgupta et al., 2022; Hossain et al., 2018).

Furthermore, literature tends to focus on either climatic trends or socio-economic vulnerability rather than the intersection of the two from a community-based perspective.

This study allows for a holistic understanding of how sea-going fishers are affected not just by physical environmental change, but by structural, economic, and institutional constraints that mediate their ability to respond (Cinner et al., 2018; O’Brien et al., 2004). By anchoring the analysis in this framework, the study aims to bridge the gap between objective climatic data and subjective experiences and responses at the local level.

This study provides a unique contribution to the understanding of climate change impacts on sea-going fishers in Paikgachha Upazila, Khulna, Bangladesh, offering a localised, community-specific perspective that fills a gap in the existing literature. While many studies address climate change impacts broadly on coastal populations, this research specifically focuses on the challenges faced by fishers, including reduced fishing durations, increased salinity, and more frequent storms. Through a combination of structured interviews, focus group discussions (FGDs), and climatic trend analysis, the study captures both qualitative and quantitative data, highlighting the tangible, day-to-day effects of climate change on fishers’ livelihoods, health, and profession shifts. By employing a unique dataset and integrating primary field data with secondary meteorological records, the research contributes valuable insights into the urgency of tailored adaptation strategies and policy interventions.

This study underscores the need for safety protocols, livelihood diversification, and climate-resilient practices to support the vulnerable fishing communities of Bangladesh, thus adding critical evidence to the global discourse on climate adaptation in coastal regions.

 

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study area

The study was conducted in Paikgachha Upazila, Khulna district (Figure 1).

It is the south-western coastal region of Bangladesh that supports a large number of sea-going fisher communities, which are vulnerable to climate change. There are about 500 fishing boats and approximately 10,000 fishers in the study area, but only 155 fishing boats and 4,954 fishers are registered. About 2,500 households are extremely disadvantaged occupational groups commonly known as ‘Malo’ and ‘Nikari’.

Paikgachha has easy accessibility to the sea-going fisher communities with an apparent fishing community density. It has a fish landing centre and a fish processing facility. The area is well connected by roads and rivers. The location is a safe fish harbour.

Climatic condition

The climate of Paikgachha Upazila is tropical monsoon, with hot, humid summers and moderate, dry winters. This region is particularly susceptible to climate change impacts due to its low-lying coastal geography.

These conditions pose risks such as dehydration and heat-related illnesses, especially for those engaged in outdoor activities (e.g., fishing).

Data collection

The study followed a mixed-methods approach. Both qualitative and quantitative data were used to describe the impact of climate change on sea-going fishers.

Quantitative data were used to determine the affected community’s percentage and perceptions.

Primary data collection

Questionnaire survey

A total of 60 sea-going fishers were selected randomly to collect the data. Selected respondents were full-time fishermen and depended entirely on fishing for their livelihood. The use of random sampling in this study was chosen to ensure that the sample of sea-going fishers in Paikgachha Upazila was representative of the broader fisher community. Random sampling allows each fisher an equal chance of being selected, which helps minimise selection bias and ensures that a variety of perspectives are captured (Brick et al., 2022; Biro, 2013).

 

 

This method was particularly important given the diverse nature of the fishing community, with varying levels of experience, age, and vulnerability to climate change. By randomly selecting participants, the study aimed to gather a broad range of insights into how different fishers are impacted by climate change, without over-representing any particular group (Jacquemont et al., 2022; Solymosi et al., 2015).

Additionally, random sampling enhances the generalizability of the findings to the larger population of sea-going fishers in the region, making the study’s results more applicable for policymaking and climate adaptation strategies (Arhin, 2022). Finally, this approach was chosen for its cost-effectiveness and simplicity in reaching a sufficient sample size while ensuring the reliability and validity of the data collected through both surveys and FGDs (Rassi et al., 2018).

As a method of carrying out a successful in-depth interview, the respondents were interviewed with planned questionnaires designed for these purposes. The questions were open-ended to get the actual scenario. The survey aimed to gather information about the present fishing method, their perception of climate change, and how climate change impacts them during their fishing in the sea. The focus was also to know possible solutions by fishermen under climate change vulnerabilities to represent Bangladesh’s whole sea-going fisher community under the severe threat of climate change.

Focus group discussion

A FGD is a qualitative research method used to gather in-depth insights from a group of people on a specific topic (Akyıldız and Ahmed, 2021). FGD data involves analysing the spoken words, opinions, and group dynamics to uncover insights into the research topic (Susanto et al., 2024). For primary data collection, fieldwork was carried out using FGD data collection tools. There was a group of six to seven fishermen who shared their opinions and experiences about climate change and its impact on their livelihoods.

Secondary data collection

There are so many climate change factors that have already been identified. The present study addressed three main climate change factors using the data sources of tropical cyclones, mean temperature, and extreme rainfall. Other factors were also analysed using the secondary data sources.

Data analysis

As a part of the impact assessment for the most critical climate change factors, Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD) data were analysed, especially considering the coastal areas of Bangladesh. The data were used to find the trendlines in this study, where applicable. At the same time, the Mann–Kendall test and Sen’s slope were applied to the same dataset for validation. SPSS v.22 was used to analyze the collected data.

 

RESULTS

The effects of climate change in the country are felt measurably by all walks of life. The coastal community is the worst sufferer of all. The study first analysed the top climate impact factors with recent data to show the severity of climate change impacts that are evident in the coastal area of Bangladesh and exposure to the sea-going fishers.

The top climate factors that impact sea-going fishers

Tropical cyclones

The BoB is one of the hotspots in the world for tropical cyclones (TCs). A study shows that a total of 144 TCs formed during 1972–2015 (Bhardwaj and Singh, 2021). Most TCs, almost 64%, have formed during the post-monsoon (October–December) season. The northern BoB and its adjacent coastal areas are frequently affected by TCs, which cause storm surges in combination with high waves. The frequency is 1.5 to 2 events per year (Kudrass et al., 1998). More recent data suggest that climate change has contributed to an increase in TC intensity, further exacerbating the risks for these coastal areas (Gori et al., 2022; Knutson et al., 2021). The present study analysed the last 40 years (i.e., 1982–2021) of depressions and TCs in the BMD data and observed that the frequency of tropical revolving storms (TRSs) in the BoB has been slightly declining (Figure 2).

The same dataset was validated using the Mann–Kendall test and Sen’s slope. Using the Mann–Kendall test, it was found that p = 0.308 (two-tailed), which denotes a positive trend (Figure 3). However, Sen’s slope value is 0.000, meaning there is no trend. Considering these results, the trend of either an increasing or decreasing frequency of TRSs from 40 years of data is inconclusive. The TRS data of a wider period may yield conclusive results.

 

 

 

However, a recent study on the trend of cyclones over the BoB that analysed 129 years (i.e., 1891–2019) of data found that the incidence of cyclones has declined annually. There has been an increase in the frequency of severe cyclones each year as well as in pre- and post-monsoon severe cyclones (Sarkar and Chakraborty, 2021). In these circumstances, the sea-going fishers’ lives will be at stake if the safety protocol and adaptation measures are not maintained properly in the coastal community of Bangladesh.

Figure 4 shows the 100-year tracks of the major cyclonic storms in BoB from 1921 to 2020, prepared by the Bangladesh Navy Hydrographic and Oceanographic Center (BNHOC). Approximately a total of 508 TCs formed in the BoB, and around 17% hit the Bangladesh coast during the last 100 years (Saha and Khan, 2014). More recent studies suggest that climate change has further exacerbated these patterns, increasing the intensity of cyclones (Knutson et al., 2021; Walsh et al., 2016).

In the recent past, the most devastating cyclones were Cyclone Sidr in 2007 and Cyclone Nargis in 2008, where the reported casualties were 3,363 and 3,500, respectively (Hossain and Mullick, 2020). The number of casualties of fishers in Bangladesh is very high, and Lloyd’s Register Foundation’s Fish SAFE 2025 project data stated that over 1,350 fishermen die at sea each year in Bangladesh. More than 5 million people are engaged in marine fishing in Bangladesh’s coastal region and are vulnerable to rough weather at sea. Recent studies have highlighted that the risk to coastal populations is increasing due to rising sea levels and more frequent cyclonic events (Qiu et al., 2025; Wu et al., 2024).

Mean temperature trend

Bangladesh is highly affected by global warming, although it produces only 0.56% of the global emissions. As per the Germanwatch’s 2021 Global Climate Risk Index, Bangladesh is ranked seventh on the list of nations most at risk from climate change (Eckstein et al., 2021). Chandan (2022) found that the United States is losing 7 billion working hours annually due to extreme heat exposure. The present study analysed temperature data from 1991 to 2021 (31 years) and found that the temperature in the coastal areas of Bangladesh shows an increasing trend (Figure 5). Recent studies suggest that rising temperatures in the region are directly linked to the intensification of extreme weather events, including cyclones and floods (Islam, 2025; Valavanidis, 2022).

A total of ten coastal areas were considered: Cox’s Bazar, Kutubdia, Chattogram, Hatia, Bhola, Barishal, Khepupara, Khulna, Mongla, and Satkhira. Having analysed the same dataset using the Mann–Kendall test and Sen’s slope, it was found that the p-value = 0.009, which denotes the presence of a positive trend. From Sen’s slope, the rate of increase is 0.014 per year, which validates the findings of the present study (Figure 6).

Bangladesh’s temperature is predicted to rise by roughly 1.5°C by 2050 (World Bank, 2022). It will result in increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, which will affect the coastal community in terms of their livelihood and safety at sea. Recent studies emphasise that rising temperatures will exacerbate the vulnerability of coastal populations to storms and flooding, significantly impacting both human and economic well-being (Ahmed and Tamim, 2025; Allen et al., 2021). In addition, climate adaptation strategies for fishermen and coastal communities are becoming increasingly urgent as these changes unfold (Ojea et al., 2020; Cinner et al., 2018).

 

 

 

 

Extreme rainfall

The rainfall pattern has changed in Bangladesh due to climate change (Bhuyan et al., 2018). A warmer climate has influenced the early monsoon and precipitation. The change in rainfall patterns, especially in the Himalayan region, causes unpredictability in the weather (Azad et al., 2022). Extreme rainfall has caused flash floods and human casualties. The present study’s analysis of 31 years of rainfall data of BMD from 1991 to 2021. From the analysis it was observed that the annual rainfall in the coastal areas (e.g., Khulna, Mongla, Satkhira, Bhola, Khepupara, Chattogram, Cox’s Bazar, Hatia, Kutubdia, and Barishal) of Bangladesh is increasing at a rate of +5.65 mmyr^-1 during the period 1991–2021 (Figure 7). Recent findings suggest that climate-induced variability in rainfall is likely to intensify, leading to more frequent and severe flooding events, particularly in coastal and riverine regions (Bevacqua et al., 2020; Dharmarathne et al., 2024; Hsiao et al., 2021).

The same data series was validated using the Mann–Kendall test and Sen’s slope. From the Mann–Kendall test, it is found that p = 0.284, denoting a positive trend. From Sen’s slope, it is found that the annual average rainfall in the coastal districts of Bangladesh has increased at a rate of 7.220 mmyr^-1 (Figure 8).

A study with a series of data from 50 years shows that the seasonal rainfall in Bangladesh has increased in pre-monsoon at a rate of 2.47 mmyr^-1. The period of the data was from 1958 to 2007, and the increase is approximately 5.5% per decade (Shahid, 2012).

All these findings prove that rainfall in the coastal districts of Bangladesh is on an increasing trend.

Extreme rainfall results in flooding and increased surface runoff, which inundates the lowland and damages the crops and fisheries. The intensity of rainfall has been intensifying, leading to higher vulnerability in the agricultural and fisheries sectors (Mandal et al., 2021).

The frequency and intensity of these rainfall events are predicted to rise due to the ongoing effects of climate change (Martel et al., 2021).

 

 

 

Sea level rise

Rising sea levels and more violent monsoon seasons put an estimated 3.5 million people in Bangladesh at risk of river flooding each year (WHO, 2020).

The UN predicts that 17% of Bangladesh’s coastal community might need to be shifted if the present rate persists (Ho, 2022).

Department of Environment and Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (2016) show that the change in mean sea level derived from the trend line is 5–7.5 mm.

The tendency of sea level rise (SLR) of 5 mm will have a significant impact on the coastal people (mostly fishermen) of Bangladesh in the long term. 1 m SLR would submerge 18% of the total land area in Bangladesh (Minar et al., 2013).

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) AR6 report states that SLR poses many threats, including groundwater contamination, freshwater scarcity, biodiversity loss, aquaculture loss, and frequent floods (IPCC, 2022).

Moreover, Energy Tracker Asia (2022) predicts that the coastal area of Bangladesh may have SLR between 0.4 and 1.5 metres by the end of this century, and approximately 30 million people may be displaced over this time. The SLR at different tidal stations is presented in Table 1. Recent projections suggest that climate-induced SLR will continue to increase vulnerability in coastal regions, worsening the already dire consequences for livelihoods and infrastructure (Margulis et al., 2023; Shibata and Carroll, 2023).

Salinity intrusion

Increasing salinity in the coastal area of Bangladesh is a critical issue that needs immediate attention. The ecosystem of the coastal region, particularly in the south-western region of Bangladesh, is significantly concerned with salinity. People suffer from a scarcity of safe drinking water and adequate water for irrigation, agriculture, and other uses (International Centre for Climate Change and Development, 2017). Mahmuduzzaman et al. (2014) reported that the salinity-affected area has increased from 8,330 km² in 1973 to 10,560 km² in 2009. It causes the area to become uninhabitable and the land unable to be farmed.

These impacts are the reasons for the scarcity of the food chain supply in the coastal community and harm their livelihood. The situation ultimately forces the sea-going fishers to stay for a long time at sea for fishing to survive and expose themselves to unpredictable seas.

Table 2 displays the salinity of soils and surface water in coastal districts. Recent studies confirm that salinity levels continue to rise, with increased soil salinisation impacting crop yields and freshwater availability (Haj-Amor et al., 2022; Khondoker et al., 2023; Fahim and Arefin, 2024).

Unpredictable sea

The weather has begun behaving unpredictably in the last few decades. Fishers of Bangladesh and in the coastal region have seen frequent weather changes. Repeated depressions in the BoB often lead to cyclones, heavy rainfall, and floods (Mahmud, 2021).

The warm wind prevails for a long time, resulting in drought, rain, depression, cyclones, and rough seas, and it hampers the overall productivity of fishing at sea.

Unpredictable weather dwindles fishermen’s catch, forcing them to fish in the choppy sea and endangering their lives (Acharya, 2019).

 

Table 1
Sea level rise observations at various tidal sites

Tidal Station	Change in the Mean Sea Level (From Trend Line) in mmyr-1	Position	Period of analysis
Hiron Point	5.5	21º 48.05´ N 089º 27.84´ E	1977–2002
Moheshkhali	7.5	21º.40.32´ N 91º.57.54´ E	1968–1996
Cox’s Bazar	5.05	21º 27.61´ N 091º 58.11´ E	1977–2002
Sandwip	7.04	22º 30.36´ N 091º 32.62´ E	1977–2002

Source: CEGIS & DOE, 2011

 

Table 2
Salinity levels in ppm (SRDI, 2001)

District	Surface water	Soil
Bagerhat	5–>10	4–>15
Barisal	0	0–4
Bhola	1–10	4–>15
Chittagong	0–<1	0–8
Cox’s Bazar	<1	>15
Khulna	5–>10	8–>15
Patuakhali	1–10	8–>15
Satkhira	5–<10	4–<15

 

The effects of El Niño and La Niña pose great threats to water-related resources like fish and other livelihood activities.

These phenomena are significantly related to rainfall, temperature, and hydrology in the BoB (Islam and Parvez, 2020). The influence of La Niña especially causes extreme rainfall over the BoB, exacerbating flooding and soil erosion in the region (Berhane and Tesfay, 2020; Islam, 2025).

Ocean acidification

Ocean acidification (OA) is the main effect of the increased CO₂ concentration in marine water (IPCC, 2019). It is estimated that the pH has decreased from around 8.2 to 8.1, an actual upsurge in acidity (i.e., a lower pH) of 30%, and the magnitude will be higher by 2050 if CO₂ emissions remain at this rate (European Environment Agency, 2021).

OA threatens the economic, social, and ecological foundations of fishing communities (Hilmi et al., 2019). Marine acidification affects marine food chain and biodiversity that causes damage to the ecosystem of the ocean (Barry et al., 2011). Acidic waters weaken the shells of oysters, mussels, clams, crabs, lobsters, and other shellfish (Gazeau et al., 2013). Larval survival and growth are reduced, resulting in lower yields of fish and shellfish.

It especially affects the livelihoods of coastal people greatly as it damages marine habitats and reduces harvests (Hasan et al., 2010). OA also affects mental and physical health-related issues in the coastal community because it increases livelihood insecurity (Priya, 2024; Shukla et al., 2024).

Impact of climate change on fishing communities of Paikgachha Upazila

Fishermen are at the frontline of climate change impacts because their livelihoods, food security, and cultures are closely tied to the sea and coastal ecosystems. Fishing is considered one of the riskiest professions in Bangladesh (ILO, 2019). The impact of climate change is worsening the situation, and it is expected to deteriorate further if proper adaptation measures are not taken adequately. Mostly, the fishing profession is traditional and continues from generation to generation in the fisher community of Bangladesh (Hasan et al., 2010).

The survey results on the impact of climate change on the sea-going fisher community in Paikgachha Upazila are documented in Table 3. It shows the last 25 to 30 years of changes in the sea-going fisher community’s life and livelihood. Recent studies highlight that increased frequency of extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and OA have led to a significant reduction in fish catch and increased risks to fisher health and safety (Heck et al., 2023; Mendenhall et al., 2020). Without adequate climate adaptation strategies, the situation is expected to worsen, threatening the resilience of the fishing communities (Ojea et al., 2020).

The present study reveals that sea-going fishermen (100%) are experiencing the tangible impacts of climate change, primarily due to a significant reduction in their fishing time (Table 3). Frequent storms and earlier winters have forced fish to migrate into deeper waters, making it increasingly difficult for fishermen to catch enough fish. Life-threatening cyclones have become a common occurrence, causing fishermen to return home early to protect their lives, thus disrupting their ability to fish during the same times and seasons as before. The rising salinity levels have further impacted the fish life cycle, with species less tolerant of saline conditions migrating away. As a result, fishermen are now catching fewer fish near the shore, and fishing has become a loss-making endeavour. Consequently, the fishermen (100%) express a clear reluctance to encourage their children to take up the profession, signalling the diminishing future of the fishing industry in their community (Table 3).

The study also highlights broader climate-related challenges, including a twofold increase in severe storm intensity, a 30% displacement of people, and a 30–40% disruption of livelihoods. Additionally, fishermen face a growing number of health problems such as eye irritation, skin itching, and gastrointestinal difficulties due to high salinity and seawater acidification. The urgency for safety materials is now at 100%, and the impacts of salinity intrusion have worsened. With a 40% decrease in aquaculture practices, a 60% loss in agricultural crop production, and a 50% loss in drinking water sources, the community faces increasing difficulties in maintaining its traditional livelihoods. These challenges are compounded by a 40% loss of arable land and a 40% increase in birth complications among women in the region (Table 3).

 

Table 3
Changes in the sea-going fisher community’s life and livelihood in Paikgachha Upazila over the last 25–30 years

Different aspects of climate change	Impacts
Intensity of severe storms	Increased twice
People displacement	30% displaced
Profession shifting	100% of respondents want to change the fishing profession
Livelihood displacement	30–40%
House shifting due to cyclones	3–7 times/person in whole lifetime
Death rate	Decreased by 30% due to increased awareness, early cyclone warnings, and timely return from the sea
Accident rate	Increased twice due to boat capsizing, onboard injuries, and vessel damage during unpredictable sea conditions
Fishing duration	Almost 40% decreased yearly
Fishing profession shifting	30–40%
Marine fisheries production	50% decrease
Fishermen’s health problems during fishing in the sea	Eye irritation, skin itching, and gastrointestinal difficulties are due to high salinity and acidification of seawater
Sea salinity	Increased
Urgency of safety materials	100%
Salinity intrusion	Increased
Women birth complexity	40% increased
Agricultural crop production loss	60% increased
Aquaculture practice	40% decreased
Arable landmass loss	40% are useless
Drinking water sources	Lost 50%

 

Overall, the study depicts a dire picture of how climate change has reshaped the lives of fishermen, making it increasingly difficult to continue in the profession and causing long-term displacement in both livelihoods and health.

 

DISCUSSION

The present study found that 100% of fishermen in Paikgachha Upazila agreed that the frequency of TCs and their impact on livelihoods have increased over time. However, the analysis of BMD data from 1982 to 2021 shows a slight decline in the frequency of TRSs in the BoB. This finding is consistent with Sarkar and Chakraborty (2021), who observed a similar decline in the annual frequency of cyclones over 129 years. Despite this, the study noted an increase in severe cyclones, particularly during the pre- and post-monsoon seasons, aligning with the current study’s findings on the increasing severity of cyclonic events. The study also revealed that approximately 30% of people have been displaced due to cyclone impacts, which corresponds with findings by Dasgupta et al. (2022). Additionally, 100% of respondents indicated a shift away from fishing due to the increasing unpredictability of the sea, reflecting similar trends observed by Hossain et al. (2018) in coastal communities. Changes in ocean conditions, particularly due to warm winds and frequent nor’westers, have made the sea more unpredictable and dangerous. These findings align with Afjal Hossain et al. (2011), who reported significant impacts on coastal livelihoods due to changing weather patterns. The increasing salinity and its effect on fish stocks, including species migration, are also in line with studies by Ali et al. (2024), which highlighted shifts in marine biodiversity due to climate-induced changes in sea temperature and salinity.

The present study noted a decrease in fish abundance over the past 30 years, attributed to overfishing, ocean chemistry changes, and increased salinity, which have driven species to migrate. Fishermen reported reduced catches, particularly of species like Rup Chanda and Churi Fish. Similar trends have been documented in previous studies, indicating the impact of climate change and human activities on marine biodiversity. For example, Ali et al. (2024) reported that changes in ocean conditions, such as increased sea temperature and salinity, have caused shifts in fish distributions and led to the migration of species that are intolerant to higher salinity. Additionally, the study highlighted how changing weather patterns, such as early winters, have disrupted fishing cycles and reduced catches during peak seasons. This is consistent with findings by Hossain et al. (2018), who noted that the timing of fish availability and fishing cycles in coastal areas has been affected by changes in weather patterns. They found that unpredictable weather and extreme events, including early winters, have resulted in a mismatch between fishing activities and fish availability. Overfishing has also played a significant role in the decline of fish stocks, as noted by Ritika (2022b), who observed that increased fishing pressure over the years has led to a decrease in marine resources. In the context of the BoB, the reduced availability of species like Rup Chanda and Churi Fish is likely influenced by both overfishing and the migration of species due to changing environmental conditions.

The present study revealed an increase in health issues among fishermen, including eye irritation, skin problems, and gastrointestinal difficulties, due to prolonged exposure to saline water. This is consistent with findings by Afjal Hossain et al. (2011), who observed similar health issues in coastal communities exposed to saline water, particularly skin irritation and gastrointestinal problems. Furthermore, the need for safety gear such as helmets and gloves has become critical, as indicated by the current study, aligning with the research by Hossain et al. (2018), who highlighted the importance of protective gear to minimise health risks among fishermen. Saline water intrusion has also led to higher blood pressure and increased miscarriage rates among women. This finding is supported by the study conducted by Dasgupta et al. (2022). They reported a significant correlation between saline water intrusion and elevated health risks, including cardiovascular issues. The increased rate of miscarriages observed in this study is also in line with the findings of Alam et al. (2017), who documented an increase in pregnancy complications, including miscarriages, among women in coastal regions affected by high salinity. Additionally, the study noted that 90% of prawn farms in the region were affected by high salinity, which is consistent with the findings of Miah et al. (2020), who reported significant losses in aquaculture productivity due to saline water intrusion. This has further exacerbated the livelihoods of the fishing community, with many prawn farms experiencing stock deaths or diseases due to the salinity increase.

The present study observed significant agricultural impacts, including crop losses due to high salinity and reduced precipitation. This finding is consistent with the study by Rahman and Uddin (2021), which highlighted that saline intrusion and altered precipitation patterns have led to substantial crop damage in coastal regions of Bangladesh. Many farmers have responded by shifting to brackish water farming or alternative livelihoods, such as shrimp farming or crab fattening, as reported in the current study. This trend is corroborated by Ahmed et al. (2019), who documented similar adaptations in coastal areas, where farmers have increasingly turned to aquaculture as a response to declining agricultural productivity due to salinity. The shift from agriculture to brackish water aquaculture further emphasises the broader impact of climate change on both agriculture and fisheries. Ritika (2022b) observed that as freshwater resources become scarce and water salinity rises, many coastal farmers have abandoned traditional crop farming in favour of shrimp farming, which is better suited to the changing environmental conditions. This shift has led to a decline in the production of freshwater fish, further impacting local food security and livelihoods. These findings align with the research of Dasgupta et al. (2022), who found that increasing salinity levels in coastal Bangladesh are not only affecting crop yields but also disrupting the local fisheries sector, forcing communities to adapt through diversified agricultural and fishing practices.

The findings highlight the urgent need for adaptation strategies, such as better safety protocols, improved cyclone shelters, and infrastructure to protect fishermen. The declining contribution of marine fisheries to GDP further emphasises the need to address these challenges. Further research is needed to examine additional climate factors and expand data collection to inform future protective measures for the fisher community.

 

CONCLUSIONS

This study presents evidence that climate change is directly and measurably affecting the livelihoods, safety, and sustainability of sea-going fishers in Paikgachha Upazila, Khulna. Field data from 60 fishers revealed that 100% of them acknowledged reduced fishing duration, increased risk, and increased uncertainty due to erratic sea conditions and more frequent severe cyclones. Approximately 40% of respondents reported losing their prawn farms in 2022 due to elevated water salinity and temperature.

Moreover, 30–40% of fishers have already shifted professions, and about 40% of the local population has migrated in the past two decades due to declining viability in marine fishing. Climatic data analysis (1991–2021) from the BMD confirms increasing trends in temperature per year (+0.014℃) and rainfall (+7.22 mmyr^-1) in coastal areas.

These specific impacts, combined with the degradation of marine resources, rising salinity, and increased health hazards, underscore the urgent need for targeted adaptation strategies. Policymakers must prioritise safety infrastructure, livelihood diversification, and climate-resilient fishing practices to mitigate long-term socio-economic damage within the fishing community.

 

RECOMMENDATIONS

To effectively mitigate the impacts of climate change on the sea-going fisher community of Paikgachha Upazila, a set of prioritised and feasible recommendations is proposed, targeting both short-term adaptive needs and long-term resilience-building strategies:

Short-term (local-level interventions)

1. Provision of safety equipment and early warning access:

Equip fishers with life jackets, radios, helmets, and gloves. Collaborate with local NGOs and Union Parishads to ensure real-time access to weather warnings and establish emergency communication hubs at landing centres.

2. Training on climate-resilient fishing practices:

Conduct local workshops on safer fishing routes, species migration patterns, and salinity-tolerant aquaculture methods through the Department of Fisheries and local institutions.

3. Mobile health services for coastal fishers:

Launch mobile medical teams during fishing seasons to address health issues linked to salinity exposure and acidified seawater.

4. Microcredit and emergency loan access:

Enable access to short-term, low-interest credit through community cooperatives and microfinance institutions to support recovery from storm-related losses.

Long-term (national and institutional-level interventions)

1. Development of climate-resilient infrastructure:

Construct cyclone-resilient fish landing centres, shelters, and cold-storage units through coordination between local governments and national bodies like the Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief.

2. Integrated coastal management and zoning policy:

Implement adaptive zoning laws that protect vulnerable coastal ecosystems while regulating aquaculture, housing, and fishing areas. Involve the Bangladesh Navy, Coast Guard, and the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change in planning.

3. Alternative livelihood support programs:

Introduce skill development programs (e.g., eco-tourism, crab farming, boat maintenance) for fishers who wish to transition out of the occupation. This can be coordinated nationally via the Ministry of Labour and Employment, with local execution by Upazila Parishads.

4. National fisher data registry and insurance schemes:

Establish a centralised database of all active fishers and fishing boats and launch climate-risk insurance schemes under the Social Safety Net Program.

 

Author contributions: Conceptualisation:

MMH, AKR; Methodology: MMH, AKR; Analysis: MMH, AKR; Writing original draft: MMH, AKR, MSB; Funding acquisition: MMH; Supervision: MMH; Review and editing: MSB. All authors declare that they have read and approved the publication of the manuscript in this present form.

Data availability statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding authors.

Conflicts of interest: The authors affirm that no conflicts of interest are associated with this publication.

 

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