Issue 1 (201)/2025

ALSE and ACS Style
Bhuyan, Md.S.; Haider, S.M.B.; Kunda, M.; Islam, Md.T.; Mojumder, I.A.; Husain, A.; Chowdhury, E.; Roy, R.; Ali, M.M.; Pandit, D. Exploring the role of seaweed culture in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere: a nature-based solution for climate change mitigation. Journal of Applied Life Sciences and Environment 2025, 58 (1), 53-69.
https://doi.org/10.46909/alse-581165

AMA Style
Bhuyan Md.S, Haider SMB, Kunda M, Islam MdT, Mojumder IA, Husain A, Chowdhury E, Roy R, Ali MM, Pandit D. Exploring the role of seaweed culture in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere: a nature-based solution for climate change mitigation. Journal of Applied Life Sciences and Environment. 2025; 58 (1): 53-69. 
https://doi.org/10.46909/alse-581165

Chicago/Turabian Style
Bhuyan, Md. Simul, Sayeed Mahmood Belal Haider, Mrityunjoy Kunda, Md. Tarikul Islam, Istiak Ahamed Mojumder, Abid Husain, Enam Chowdhury, Ranjan Roy, Mir Mohammad Ali, and Debasish Pandit. 2025. “Exploring the role of seaweed culture in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere: a nature-based solution for climate change mitigation.” Journal of Applied Life Sciences and Environment 58, no. 1: 53-69. 
https://doi.org/10.46909/alse-581165

Exploring the role of seaweed culture in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere: a nature-based solution for climate change mitigation

Md. Simul BHUYAN^1,2*, Sayeed Mahmood Belal HAIDER³, Mrityunjoy KUNDA², Md. Tarikul ISLAM¹, Istiak Ahamed MOJUMDER⁴, Abid HUSAIN⁵, Enam CHOWDHURY⁵, Ranjan ROY⁶, Mir Mohammad ALI⁷ and Debasish PANDIT^2,8

¹Bangladesh Oceanographic Research Institute, Cox’s Bazar-4730, Bangladesh; email: taru@bori.gov.bd

²Department of Aquatic Resource Management, Faculty of Fisheries, Sylhet Agricultural University, Sylhet-3100, Bangladesh; email: kunda.arm@sau.ac.bd; dpandit.sau@gmail.com

³Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Dhaka-1205, Bangladesh; email: belal_13th@yahoo.com

⁴Department of Zoology, University of Chittagong, Chittagong-4331, Bangladesh; email: ahmed.himu108@gmail.com

⁵Bangladesh Marine Fisheries Association, Dhaka-1215, Bangladesh; email: abidbmfa@yahoo.com; enam@chowdhury.org

⁶Dept. of Agricultural Extension and Information System, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Sher-e-Bangla Nagar, Dhaka-1207; email: ranjan@sau.edu.bd

⁷Department of Aquaculture, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka-1207, Bangladesh; email: mir.ali@sau.edu.bd

⁸Department of Fishery Resources Conservation and Management, Khulna Agricultural University, Khulna-9100, Bangladesh;

*Correspondence: sihumulbyan@gmail.com 

Received: Dec. 15, 2024. Revised: Feb. 03, 2025. Accepted: Feb. 28, 2025. Published online: Mar. 24, 2025

ABSTRACT. To keep the world safe from extreme temperature occurrences, global warming must be kept below 1.5°C. Seaweed has emerged as a holistic nature-based solution to solve global warming by reducing greenhouse gases (GHGs). This review evaluated the role of seaweed in reducing GHGs. Seaweed can minimise carbon (C) emissions by absorbing them. Lowering ruminant enteric methane (CH₄) emissions and producing bioenergy are two more ways seaweed can contribute to global decarbonisation. Atmospheric trace gases like nitrous oxide (N₂O) are a factor in global warming. By 2050, 10 million metric tons (MMt) of nitrogen (N) would be absorbed by a seaweed yield of 500 MMt. All macroalgae release the volatile gas bromoform, which contributes to ozone (O₃) depletion in the atmosphere. Bromoform is a component of red seaweed’s chemical composition. Large-scale seaweed cultivation can transform the way GHG emissions are managed while also generating new businesses. Furthermore, eutrophic, hypoxic, and acidic coasts can gain other advantages from seaweed cultivation. Although seaweed offsetting is a vital emerging tool for achieving a more sustainable future, it is not the only answer to the problem of climate change. This study demonstrates that seaweed cultivation and related sectors are viable solutions for lowering GHG emissions, achieving monetary growth, and creating sustainable means of subsistence.

Keywords: culture; global warming; greenhouse gases; minimization; seaweed.

 

INTRODUCTION

Approximately 71% of the Earth’s surface is covered by water, which is crucial in regulating the Earth’s climate. The oceans absorb a significant amount of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and heat from the atmosphere, helping mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) effects on the climate (Bhuyan et al., 2024a, 2025; Grorud-Colvert and Ward, 2023). Global warming is an ecological factor that continues to receive much attention from specialists. A rise in the amount of GHGs in the atmosphere, which traps more heat and warms the world, is the primary contributor to global warming (Mashoreng, 2019). The 2015 Paris Agreement aims to limit the increase in the world mean temperature to below 2°C, which will necessitate a swift and significant decrease in GHG emissions. By mid-century or shortly after, emissions must be “net zero,” according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Sun et al., 2021). Such drastic cuts must be made in such a short amount of time, necessitating system modifications on a scale never before seen and requiring extensive adjustments in all areas of the economy. The rising worry is that the required adjustments will not be made in time, resulting in excessive GHG emissions that will eventually need to be eliminated from the environment (Sonwani and Saxena, 2022).

GHG reduction has generally concentrated on methods for absorbing CO₂ from the atmosphere and storing it or using it in some other manners (Packer, 2009). Direct air capture, tree plantations, and restoration, as well as bioenergy with carbon (C) capture and storage, have received a lot of attention (Burns and Corbett, 2020). The seas already absorb around ten gigatons of CO₂ from the environment every year. There are several ways to boost the seas’ ability to absorb CO₂; one of them is by increasing the development of seaweed (Webb et al., 2021). Other than economic perspectives, seaweed also has an effective role in climate change (Bhuyan et al., 2024a; Farhaduzzaman et al., 2023; Islam et al., 2020). Using cultivated seaweed for goods that save a gigaton of CO₂-eq GHG emissions yearly might yield a profit of $50/tCO₂-eq, while sinking cultivated seaweed to the deep sea to bury a gigaton of CO₂ costs as little as US$480/tCO₂ (DeAngelo et al., 2022).

According to Bhuyan (2023) and Beas-Luna et al. (2020), seaweed is essential to the ocean’s capacity to absorb GHGs. Seaweed is now thought to be the most efficient natural technique to absorb C emissions from the atmosphere, even if forests are still regarded as the finest natural barrier in the fight against climate change (Bhuyan et al., 2023, 2024b). Additionally, seaweed draws CH₄, N₂O, and fluorinated chemicals from the atmosphere (Bhuyan et al., 2022a; Gillman, 2022). Seaweed expands by up to two feet per day, does not need fertilisers, and grows considerably more quickly than trees (Bhuyan et al., 2021). Trapping GHGs can be quite effective in halting climate change (Godin, 2020). Additionally, seaweed reduces the negative effects of global warming on the ocean’s diversity and the sources of nourishment and income for hundreds of millions of coastal people by reducing acidity, deoxygenation, and other ocean effects (Woody, 2019; Yong et al., 2022). Furthermore, seaweed has a great role in the blue economy (Bhuyan et al., 2022b).

 

DISCUSSION

Seaweed culture’s role in greenhouse gas reduction

The majority of the GHG emissions that cause global warming are caused by human activities (Hassan et al., 2023). Worries about global warming have prompted calls to decrease the use of fossil fuels while also restoring and safeguarding existing natural C sinks (Dooley et al., 2022). Land trees are the most prominent of these natural sinks, but attention has been increasingly drawn to the benefits and capacity of coastline canopy ecosystems to store GHGs (Gallagher et al., 2022). These are the highly productive environments for seaweed, saltmarsh, mangroves, and seagrass, generally stated as a blue C environment (Macreadie et al., 2021; Hori et al., 2019). Seaweed has a significant role in lowering atmospheric GHG levels (Bhuyan, 2023; Bhuyan et al., 2021, 2022a).

Carbon dioxide reduction

The amount of CO₂ in the atmosphere has increased globally over the past 150 years by 40%, reaching 407 ppm. By 2100, this level is predicted to rise to 1000 ppm, which will cause a pH drop of 0.3. By 2100, the sea surface temperature is expected to rise by 1.5-4°C (Minich et al., 2018). To stop global warming and a future climatic disaster, it will be imperative to remove CO₂ from the atmosphere (Hurlimann, 2019). As deforestation destroys rainforests and other essential C sinks, the potential of seaweed culture is to combat climate change (Bhuyan et al., 2021). Seaweed and other macrophytes are incredibly effective at storing C in their rapidly expanding oceanic environment. Just 0.001% of the world’s seaweed-growing waters may be used to grow macroalgae, which could then be submerged at sea to reduce global C emissions (Bhuyan et al., 2022a; Woody, 2019).

Growing seaweed, such as kelp and other algae, removes CO₂ from the ocean (Kaladharan et al., 2009). Seaweeds are excellent at acquiring and storing C because they have a rapid growth rate and a long lifespan (Bhuyan et al., 2024a). Trees are less effective in absorbing CO₂ than seaweed. Large amounts of CO₂ are absorbed by seaweed (Azeez, 2021). Approximately 50% of the C that is stored on the seafloor comes from seaweed. A substantial percentage of that C can linger in the ocean for probably hundreds of years. Seaweeds absorb extra C, N, and other nutrients via photosynthesis to create new biomass and release oxygen (Bedolfe, 2017; Thomson, 2021). Thus, seaweeds act as C sinks and restore the marine ecosystem by reducing acidity and supplying habitat for aquatic life (Li, 2019).

Seaweed farming is the fastest-growing component of the global food supply and offers several opportunities to slow down and respond to climate change (Bhuyan et al., 2022a; Duarte et al., 2022). Consequently, seaweed ventures work as CO₂ sinks by releasing C that may be buried in sediment or exported to the deep ocean (Duarte et al., 2017). Similar to land plants, as seaweed grows, it absorbs C from the atmosphere and deposits it as biomass.

However, unlike terrestrial forests, the C stored in seaweed is not at risk from fire and deterioration. Some types of seaweed have gas bladders in their fronds that enable them to drift close to the top where sunlight may reach them (Goldstein-Rose, 2021). The seaweed’s bladders allow it to float for a long distance before bursting, which causes it to drop to the deep-ocean floor, where the C is trapped for thousands to millions of years (Bhuyan, 2023; Hurlimann, 2019).

According to Garca-Poza et al. (2020), seaweed spontaneously absorbs roughly 640 metric tons of CO₂ per year, with over 90% stored in deep water. Froehlich et al. (2019) reported that sunken seaweed can absorb 1,110 tons of CO₂/km² of seaweed cultivated areas. In case of reduced releases from fossil fuels, seaweed biofuels might prevent around 1,500 tons of CO₂/km² of seaweed cultivation area each year (Webb et al., 2021). The 500 million metric tons (MMt) of seaweed produced would use 135 MMt of C, or 3.2% of the C released to seawater annually due to GHG emissions (Work, 2017). The assimilation of C ~1 PgC/y is accounted for by seaweeds and seagrasses. Mangroves, saltmarshes, and seagrasses are thought to be able to capture 70% of the C in the maritime environment (Sondak et al., 2017). Seaweed aquaculture beds in the Asia-Pacific area have the potential to absorb over 694,636 t of C/year (Sondak et al., 2017). The CO₂ sequestration by seaweed aquaculture beds in the Asia-Pacific area is shown in Figure 1.

Half of the C that is stored in the world’s coastal seas comes from macro-vegetated marine environments (Bhuyan et al., 2022a, 2024a). Highly photosynthetic seaweed populations worldwide take up 1.5 Pg C/year through net production, making the seaweed yield from wild stocks and farmed a major way to capture CO₂ from the environment (Duarte et al., 2017; Mashoreng, 2019). Seaweed culture has a maximum annual CO₂ collection capacity of 2.48 MMt.

The maximum CO₂ capture capacity of seaweed cultivation would surpass 6% of the total CO₂ absorption by natural kelp by 2050 if present growth rates continue. About 961 kg CO₂/ton is removed from the atmosphere via seaweed aquaculture’s biofuel generation (Duarte et al., 2017). Seaweed communities thrive, and those dominated by Laminaria hyperborea can produce up to 3 kg/Cm² annually. Every year, seaweeds harvested for commercial purposes remove close to 0.7 MMt of C from the ocean (Chung et al., 2013).

 

 

Beardall and Raven (2004) estimate that ocean photosynthesis provides 54–59 PgC/year of the planet’s total primary production, with seaweeds and seagrasses contributing only ~1 PgC/year. Seaweeds also have a promising prospect for absorbing C since macroalgae may add 0.26×10⁶ tons of C to the collected seaweed yearly (Chung et al., 2011; Sahoo, 2012). The idea of a littoral CO₂ elimination belt was put forth by Chung et al. (2013), who also estimated that a project in Korea might sequester up to 10 tons of CO₂ equivalent per hectare each year. According to Krause-Jensen and Duarte (2016), seaweeds might sequester roughly 173 TgC each year worldwide. Transportation to the deep-sea accounts for about 90% of this absorption, with coastal sediments accounting for the remaining 10% (Chung et al., 2017). A total of 8.23 tons of CO₂/ha/cycle is absorbed by marine algae. Takalar District in Indonesia provided the most C sequestration, contributing a calculated 771492.4 tons per year (Mashoreng, 2019). The possibility to sequester 1 of CO₂/year through the farming of seaweed in Indonesia is presented in Figure 2.

Methane (CH₄) reduction

Climate change is mostly caused by GHGs, and CH₄ is a powerful GHG (Kannadhasan and Nagarajan, 2023). As a potent GHG with about 80 times the heating potential of CO₂ in the initial 20 years after emission, CH₄ has a significant impact on upcoming heating and the temperature increase over the following few years (Oni et al., 2023). It contributes to around 11% of the GHG emissions in the United States and has a global warming possibility 28 times greater than CO₂ on a 100-year timeline (Roque et al., 2019). By enhancing soil health and replacing synthetic fertilisers, seaweed farming can also aid in reducing emissions from agriculture. Whenever it is fed to cattle, seaweed also lowers the CH₄ emissions from livestock (Duarte et al., 2017).

Adding a modest amount of Asparagopsis taxiformis to cow feed can reduce the emission of CH₄ from beef cattle by up to 99% (Godin, 2020; Li, 2019). Farmers can feed their animals with seaweed as feed. In its role as fertiliser, it promotes plants’ nutrient absorption and aids in the fight against soil-related diseases. Using livestock feed can lessen the amount of CH₄ that cows generate.

Ruminant diets containing A. taxiformis and Asparagopsis aramata had significantly reduced levels of enteric CH₄. Li et al. (2018) reported a relationship between feeding sheep A. taxiformis and CH₄ generation and discovered an 80% decrease in CH₄ when compared to a control diet.

Similar findings were obtained by Roque et al. (2019) for cows given A. taxiformis and by Kinley et al. (2020) for Brahman–Angus cross steers, which had reductions in CH₄ of between 40% and 98%.

Various seaweed farming businesses are currently functioning in several nations to reduce CH₄ emissions. Many of these businesses concentrate on the growth of either A. taxiformis or A. aramata (Abbott et al., 2020).

 

 

A. taxiformis has a bioactive bromoform that has been demonstrated to drastically lower animal intestinal CH₄ generation (Magnusson et al., 2020; Vega et al., 2023). In addition, some other seaweeds, such as Alaria esculenta, Ascophyllum nodosum, and Chondrus crispus, have been discovered to have the ability to lower CH₄ emissions from ruminants. The chemical bromoform, which is present in many seaweed species but mainly in Asparagopsis sp., is largely responsible for the CH₄ decrease. It is reported that bromoform blocks the methanogens’ mechanism for producing CH₄ (Abbott et al., 2020). Nevertheless, additional substances have been shown to have the capacity to restrict methanogens like Archaea and may be able to lower CH₄ emissions. These substances include lipids, carbohydrates, phlorotannins, and peptides (Min et al., 2021).

There is proof that feeding large amounts of seaweed to cattle can lower the creation of CH₄; however, the outcomes are highly unpredictable (McGregor et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2022). Red seaweed may be able to cut CH₄ production by 95% when given in a diet at a rate of 5% organic matter addition, according to in vitro research. An in vivo investigation of dairy cows employing the similarly related species A. armata revealed that at a 1% level of dry matter incorporation in the diet, CH₄ generation and production reduced by 67% and 43%, respectively.

Feeding A. taxiformis (0.10% and 0.20%) of the dry matter in the diet for 90 days reduced the release of CH₄ in steers by up to 40% and 98% (Glasson et al., 2022; Vijn et al., 2020). Table 1 depicts the contribution of different seaweeds to reducing CH₄ emissions from the atmosphere.

Nitrous oxide (N₂O) reduction

N₂O is one of the atmospheric trace gases that cause global warming. It has a chance of causing global warming around 310 times greater than CO₂ (Albert et al., 2013). A total of 500 MMt of seaweed produced globally by 2050 would remove 10 MMt of N, or 30% of the N predicted to reach the ocean, and 15 MMt of phosphorus (P), or 33% of the total P produced by fertiliser (Chopin and Tacon, 2021; Jagtap and Meena, 2022; Work, 2017). Excess N from synthetic fertilisers often enters rivers and oceans, leading to algal blooms and increased N₂O emissions through microbial processes. Seaweed absorbs excess N from the water, preventing the conditions that lead to N₂O release (Kim, 2024). Farming near agricultural runoff areas can act as a biofilter, improving water quality and reducing N₂O formation. Some seaweed species, particularly A. taxiformis, have been shown to reduce CH₄ emissions from cows, but they also impact N metabolism (Roque et al., 2021). This leads to less N excretion in manure, which in turn reduces N₂O emissions from manure decomposition. In fish and shrimp farms, excess feed and waste increase N levels, leading to higher N₂O emissions. Integrating seaweed into aquaculture (Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture) helps absorb N, thereby reducing N₂O formation. Seaweed forests support microbial communities that play a role in denitrification, converting N compounds into harmless N₂ gas instead of N₂O (Perring et al., 2025). This process interrupts the N cycle, lowering N₂O emissions from coastal and marine environments. By absorbing N, improving livestock digestion, and supporting beneficial microbial processes, seaweed can significantly reduce N₂O emissions, contributing to climate change mitigation. Expanding seaweed farming and integrating it into agriculture and aquaculture could be a powerful strategy for cutting global GHG emissions.

 

Table 1
Roles of different seaweeds in CH₄ mitigation

Seaweed	Seaweed Types	Seaweed Dose (% of Dry Matter or Organic Matter Incubated)	CH4 Decrease vs. Control	References
Alaria esculenta	Red	13, 23, 31	Linear↓ with increasing dose	Ramin et al., 2018
Asparagopsis taxiformis	Red	5	No effect at 24 h, ↓ 74% at 48h	Brooke et al., 2018
		1, 2	↓>99%	Chagas et al., 2019
		0.006, 0.013, 0.025, 0.05, and 0.1	↓100 for ≥0.05	Chagas et al., 2019
		0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10	↓100% for≥1%	Kinley et al., 2016
		2%	↓100%	Kinley et al., 2016
		16.6	↓100%	Machado et al., 2014
		0.07, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, and 16.8	No effect for _0.5%, ↓85% for 1%, ↓100% for ≥%	Machado et al., 2016a, 2016b
		2	↓100%	Machado et al., 2018
Chondrus crispus	Red	0.5	↓12%	Kinley and Fredeen, 2015
Furcellaria sp.	Red	0.5	↓10%	Kinley and Fredeen, 2015
Gigartina sp.	Red	25	↓56%	Maia et al., 2016
Gracilaria sp.	Red	2, 4, 5, 7	↓49% for 2%, small ↓ for ≥4%	Prayitno et al., 2018
Hypnea pannosa	Red	16.6	↓43%	Machado et al., 2014
Laurencia filiformis	Red	16.6	↓40%	Machado et al., 2014
Gracilaria vermiculophylla	Red	25	↓41%	Maia et al., 2016
		25	↓37%	Maia et al., 2016
Ascophyllum nodosum	Brown	11.1	15% at 24 h	Wang et al., 2008
Padina australis	Brown	16.6	↓51%	Machado et al., 2014
Sargassum flavicans	Brown	16.6	↓34%	Machado et al., 2014
Dictyota bartayresii	Brown	16.6	↓92%	Machado et al., 2014
Cladophora patentiramea	Green	16.6	↓66%	Machado et al., 2014
Colpomenia sinuosa	Brown	16.6	↓49%	Machado et al., 2014
Cystoseira trinodis	Brown	2, 3.8, 7.4, 13.8	↓73% for ≥3.8% only	Dubois et al., 2013
		16.6	↓45%	Machado et al., 2014
Hormophysa triquetra	Brown	16.6	↓44%	Machado et al., 2014
Zonaria farlowii	Brown	5	↓11% at 24 h only	Brooke et al., 2018
Caulerpa taxifolia	Green	16.6	↓33%	Machado et al., 2014
Chaetomorpha linum	Green	16.6	↓40%	Machado et al., 2014
Ulva ohnoi	Green	16.6	↓45%	Machado et al., 2014
Ulva sp.	Green	16.6	↓50%	Machado et al., 2014
		25	↓45%	Maia et al., 2016

Note: ↓= Decrease; > =Greater than; ≥ = Greater than or equal; h= Hour; % = Percentage

 

Fluorinated gases: chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HFC)s, and halons reduction

Seaweed does not directly absorb or break down fluorinated gases such as HFCs, perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF₆), which are synthetic GHGs used in refrigeration, electronics, and industrial processes (Al-Adilah et al., 2022). However, seaweed can indirectly contribute to reducing F-gas emissions. Considering their extreme and potent influence on the climate, HFC, PFCs, SF₆, and NF₃ have been referred to as “super contaminants” and “super GHGs.” They are the most potent GHGs now understood by science, some of which have up to 24,000 times the possibility of causing global warming as CO₂ (Sovacool et al., 2021). It is still not known how seaweed reduces fluorinated emissions. More research is required on this. While seaweed does not directly absorb or degrade F-gases, it plays a role in reducing their sources by offering eco-friendly alternatives in cooling, packaging, and industry (Osorio, 2019). Promoting seaweed-based solutions can help minimise reliance on F-gas-intensive processes, contributing to overall GHG reduction.

Ozone (O₃) reduction

Most seaweeds produce the volatile gas bromoform, which is assumed to be the main component in seaweed that causes this impact and contributes to the O₃ hole in the atmosphere (SJSU, 2022). Red seaweed contains a chemical called bromoform. It is well known that this chemical destroys O₃; hence, further manufacturing of it is probably controversial. While seaweed grows, a chemical is released (Fonterra, 2018). This would make it impossible for red seaweed to be cultivated commercially or at least present significant obstacles. The predicted growth of the seaweed sector, especially if it concentrates on some of the seaweeds that produce the most bromoform, could have a substantial effect on the stock of O₃ in the atmosphere as well as the natural sea-to-air transit of brominated chemicals (SJSU, 2022).

 

CONCLUSIONS

Seaweed plays a significant role in reducing GHGs through various mechanisms. By expanding seaweed cultivation and utilisation, we can significantly contribute to global climate change mitigation. To support more than 9 billion people in 2050, seaweed farming must be scaled up as an emissions absorption and utilisation technology that supports a circular bioeconomy. Global concern has arisen due to the substantial rise in GHG emissions since industrialisation. Seaweeds play a significant role in coastal habitats ranging from kelp beds to corals. They are rivals, important primary producers from an ecological standpoint, and ecosystem designers. Seaweed also provides a flexible, natural approach to coping with and adapting to climate change. According to the findings of the present study, seaweed is a sustainable, nature-based solution for eliminating GHGs from the atmosphere and making the world liveable for humans.

 

Author contributions: Conceptualization: MSB; Methodology: MSB; Software: MSB; Data curation: IAM; Writing: MSB, IAM, DP; Review: MTI, AH, EC, RR, MMA; Supervision: SMBH, MK. All authors declare that they have read and approved the publication of the manuscript in this present form All authors declare that they have read and approved the publication of the manuscript in this present form.

Data availability: This study’s findings are supported by the data presented in the report.

Acknowledgements: This review research is part of the seaweed project funded by the Business Promotion Council, Ministry of Commerce. The authors are grateful to the Bangladesh Marine Fisheries Association for implementing this research. The authors are also thankful to the Bangladesh Oceanographic Research Institute for technical support.

Conflicts of interest: The authors declare no competing interests.

 

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