Issue 3 (203)/2025

ALSE and ACS Style
Wado Djouméné, D.; Chimi Djomo, C.; Tsopmejio Temfack, I.; Zapfack, L. Comparative study of plant diversity and carbon stocks of Baleng’s forest reserve and sacred forest in the western highlands of Cameroon. Journal of Applied Life Sciences and Environment 2025, 58 (3), 497-512.
https://doi.org/10.46909/alse-583188

AMA Style
Wado Djouméné D, Chimi Djomo C, Tsopmejio Temfack I, Zapfack L. Comparative study of plant diversity and carbon stocks of Baleng’s forest reserve and sacred forest in the western highlands of Cameroon. Journal of Applied Life Sciences and Environment. 2025; 58 (3): 497-512.
https://doi.org/10.46909/alse-583188

Chicago/Turabian Style
Wado Djouméné, Darling, Cédric Chimi Djomo, Ingrid Tsopmejio Temfack, and Louis Zapfack. 2025. “Comparative study of plant diversity and carbon stocks of Baleng’s forest reserve and sacred forest in the western highlands of Cameroon.” Journal of Applied Life Sciences and Environment 58, no. 3: 497-512.
https://doi.org/10.46909/alse-583188

Comparative study of plant diversity and carbon stocks of Baleng’s forest reserve and sacred forest in the western highlands of Cameroon

Darling WADO DJOUMÉNɹ*, Cédric CHIMI DJOMO², Ingrid TSOPMEJIO TEMFACK¹ and Louis ZAPFACK¹

¹Department of Plant Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé I, P.O. Box 812, Yaoundé, Cameroon; email: ingridtemfack@yahoo.fr; lzapfack@yahoo.fr

²Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD), P.O. Box 136, Yokadouma, Cameroon; email: chimicedric10@yahoo.fr

*Correspondence: darlingwado@gmail.com 

Received: Jul. 18, 2025. Revised: Sep. 16, 2025. Accepted: Oct. 17, 2025. Published online: Nov. 12, 2025

ABSTRACT. In the degraded highland landscape of western Cameroon, forest reserves and sacred forests, which are subject to forest law and community/traditional management regimes, respectively, are among the forest relics important for biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation. In the Baleng community, these two types of management co-exist, and little information is available on their potential. Thus, this study aimed to compare the woody diversity and carbon stocks in the Baleng’s reserve and sacred forest. Inventory data collection was carried out in 21 randomised plots of 30 m × 30 m each. Species richness of the sacred forest is significantly lower different from that of the forest reserve (Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney, p=0.0057). Five vulnerable species were identified in these forests, including three in the reserve and two in the sacred forest, as well as two near-threatened species, one in each site. The Shannon index (2.50–2.63) indicated moderate diversity in these two forest areas. The Sorensen index (30%) showed a low floristic affinity. Structural parameters, such as stem density and basal area, did not show any significant differences, with values of 220±171 stems·ha^-1 and 22.97±12.86 m²·ha^-1 for the reserve and 360±103 stems·ha^-1 and 35.18±6.24 m²·ha^-1 for the sacred forest. Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitneytest showed that carbon stocks have a lower-significant difference in the reserve (120.08±57.43 MgC·ha^–1) and sacred forest (194.39±56.69 MgC·ha^–1) (p=0.02). Despite their small size, these forests can be considered as biodiversity conservation reservoirs and carbon sinks for climate change mitigation. It is therefore suggested that sacred forests be integrated into sustainable ecosystem management policies in Cameroon.

Keywords: carbon stocks; Baleng-Cameroon; forest reserve; sacred forest; wood diversity.

INTRODUCTION

The Highlands agro-ecological zone of Western Cameroon (WCH) located in the western part of the country is characterized by the presence of shrubs, savannahs, and mountain forests, to which are added galleries forests (Letouzey, 1985). In terms of nature’s contribution to the population as mentioned by Nyongo and Kimengsi (2025), the forest ecosystems of WCH offer numerous goods and ecosystem services that are useful for biogeochemical equilibrium and, in particular, biodiversity conservation (Rochette et al., 2021). They also play an important role in soil protection by limiting erosion and stopping wildfires (Dahan et al., 2025). Not forgetting their socio-cultural and economic benefits to local populations (sources of food, medicinal plants, timber, firewood, cultural sites), and their contribution to climate change mitigation (Chimi et al., 2023).

The demographic explosion in the WCH, coupled with an increase in the number of women working (Fonjong and Mbuli, 2025), has led to an increased desire for relict forest areas in favour of agriculture, which is the main activity pursued by local populations (Ewane, 2024). This area is experiencing increased degradation, marked by the conversion of natural landscapes to other types of land use (Tiokeng et al., 2020). According to Fokeng et al. (2020), the rate of degradation of natural areas in the WCH is alarming, and forest cover has declined. However, a few forest relics remain, notably the sacred forests managed by local communities (Juscar et al., 2025).

In the WCH, traditional management approaches have been enacted by local communities, and they are succeeding to some extent in preserving endogenous biodiversity, as mentioned by Nkogmeneck et al. (2010) and Tiokeng et al. (2020). Through their endogenous know-how, local communities have historically delimited natural areas known as sacred forests (Maffo et al., 2025), whose role is to preserve ecosystems to perpetuate the socio-cultural beliefs and rituals passed down from generation to generation (Loh et al., 2025). These practices maintain a number of services, such as preserving habitats for wildlife species and carbon storage (Fokeng et al., 2020). There are now more than 310 sacred forests in the WCH. These sacred forests are very small areas, varying in size from 0.5 to 91 ha (Nkongmeneck et al., 2010), and their preservation is the result of specific ritual practices linked to tutelary deities (Salpeteur, 2010).

By allocating certain areas as forest reserves, the Cameroonian government is exercising the regime of the legislation in force to safeguard the biodiversity in Cameroon. These forest reserves are under Cameroon forest law management through the Ministry of Forest and Wildlife. Locally, there are managed by administrative authorities especially Mifi’s departmental delegation of Forest and Wildlife Ministry. In the WCH, there are 24 forest reserves with areas ranging from 8 to 9837 ha (MINFOF, 2015). In these agroecological zones, they were created with the aim of restoring forest heritage, conserving biodiversity and guaranteeing soil stability in areas with steep slopes (Nanfack and Kongso, 2024; Shidiki et al., 2020). The Baleng group in West Cameroon is the only area where a forest reserves and a sacred forests exist side by side. While the sacred forest isfully protected, the reserve is subject to a dynamic forestry regime based on exotic species, such as Eucalyptus saligna (Njoukam et al., 1996). In such a context, and with the degradation of the landscape due to urban development in the area (Kuété et al., 2021) and the frequentation of Baleng Lake located in the reserve (PCD, 2015), the question of identifying the management method that best preserves wood diversity and stocks more carbon should be addressed with a view to the sustainable management of these two forest entities. The research hypothesis is that species richness and carbon stocks are higher in the sacred forest that is traditionally managed than in the forest reserve that is managed by Cameroon forest law. The aim of this study is to contribute to the documentation of knowledge level regarding the current challenges of preserving mountain forests in WCH by comparing the wood diversity and carbon stocks of Baleng’s sacred forest and reserve.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study site

This study was carried out in Baleng’s sacred forest and reserve in WCH. This group is located in the Bafoussam 2 sub-division, Mifi division of western Cameroon region. Both sites have an altitude spanning 1,300 – 1,400 m, with the sacred forest covering 52.9 ha and the reserve covering 278 ha. Despite the effects of climate change in recent decades, Baleng has an equatorial monsoon or highland Cameroonian climate with two seasons, a dry season from November to February and a rainy season from March to October (Djuidje et al., 2019). Rainfall varies, with an average annual total of 1900 mm and an average annual temperature of approximately 20°C, with extremes of 25 and 15°C. The hydro-system is characteristic of mountainous regions with watersheds, presenting dendritic hydrographic networks, and the main collector is the Mifi watercourse (Kouedjou and Anaba, 2021). Baleng’s soils are essentially ferruginous, ferralitic, and hydromorphic, with primarily volcanic origin (Momo et al., 2016). Shrubby savannahs and mountain forests are the vegetation types that are phytogeographically present (Tsitoh and Bechem, 2019). With the high rate of anthropisation in this area, the natural forests have been greatly degraded for the benefit of agriculture, which is main activity conducted by people in this group (Kuété et al., 2021). The reserve and the sacred forest stand out as the only forest relics, habitats with a significant specific richness (Figure 1).

Data collection

Tree inventories were carried out in the Baleng reserve and sacred forest. Trees inventories were carried out in randomized 30 m x 30 m (900 m²) square plots as recommended by White and Edwards (2000). The inventory considered 21 randomised plots (5 in the sacred forest and 16 in the forest reserve). In each of these plots, woody trees with a diameter ≥ 10 cm were inventoried. In addition to identifying all trees by their scientific or vernacular names, the abundance and diameters of all trees present were measured. The diameter at breast height (dbh) was recorded at 1.3 m above the soil and at 30 cm above deformations or buttresses. For species that were not identified in the field, herbarium samples were collected, pressed, and conserved with 70% alcohol, which facilitated their subsequent identification at the Yaoundé National Herbarium.

The new phylogenetic classification of angiosperms (APG IV) was used as the only taxonomic nomenclature. The conservation status of the species inventoried was determined using existing flora and monographs, as described by Onana (2011), with input from the IUCN Red List Also, their statutes concerning native, or exotic were identified based on literature review.

The tree inventory data were used to estimate the biomass of the forest reserve and sacred forest using a non-destructive method. Thus, due to the absence of a specific allometry equation for the highlands of Cameroon, generalized pantropical allometric equation of Chave et al. (2014), defined as follows (Equation 1), was used to estimate the biomass of these trees in the two sites. Also this equation was mostly recommended for biomass estimation in many ecosystems in Central Africa (e.g., Lounang et al., 2018; Ngomeni et al., 2022; Nyako et al., 2025).

where AGB is the aboveground biomass (kg); D is the diameter (cm); ρ is the specific density of a species (g/cm³); and E is the climatic index.

The climatic index was extracted from the global map (Chave et al., 2014) using the GPS coordinates of each plot. The wood density values used are those of the Global Wood Density Data Base (Zanne et al., 2009). We assigned average wood density values to taxonomically well-identified species with corresponding entries in the DRYAD Database.

For morpho-species, we assigned the available mean wood density at the genus or family. If no higher taxonomic match was available, an average of all wood densities of all species was used by default like recommended by Lounang et al. (2018). The biomass obtained was converted into carbon stocks using the coefficient 0.47 (IPCC, 2006). The carbon stocks obtained were extrapolated into MgC ha^–1 using an extrapolation coefficient.

Data analysis

The collected data were analysed using R software (4.1.1.), and the ‘Biodiversity R’ package was used to calculate the diversity indices, including Shannon, Piélou, and Simpson indices.

For the significance tests, the Shapiro–Wilk normality test was first performed to determine whether the data were normally distributed and whether parametric or non-parametric tests should be performed.

The non-parametric Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitneytest was used to determine whether there was a significant difference in the biodiversity data between the sacred forest and Baleng reserve, at a significance level of 95% (species richness, mean diameter, and Shannon, Piélou, and Simpson indices), which was preceded by standardization of data by rarefaction and extrapolation using Hill numbers due to their numerous advantages over other diversity indices (Cox et al., 2017), so that both sites are compared at equal sample completeness. Also, to appreciate sampling effort, standardization was appreciated with the calculation of Chao biodiversity estimator and accumulation curve.

For structural parameters such as abundance (stems·ha^-1) and basal area (m²·ha^-1), and also carbon stocks (MgC·ha^-1), the parametric Welch’s t-test was used to test for significance between these two sites.

RESULTS

Plant diversity

The inventory carried out in the study area has permitted to identify 63 species belonging to 52 genera and 33 families. This floristic composition was showed 40 species belonging to 38 genera and 24 families in the Baleng reserve and 32 species belonging to 26 genera and 22 families in the Baleng sacred forest (Table 1, Appendix 1). For sampling effort, detection rate, as well as the total species richness Shannon, Piélou and Simpson indices detected by sampled and coverage-based rarefaction and extrapolation curves presented the same tendence. This was also confirmed by accumulation cover (Figure 2).

Figure 1 – Location of the study area

Figure 2 – Accumulation curve using rarefaction method for both sites

Table 1
Floristic composition and diversity indices

Note: Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test was performed with a 95% confidence interval.
Different letters indicate a significant difference between the reserve and the sacred forest.

Thus, the Kruskal-Wallis test showed that there was a significant difference between species richness in the sacred forest and the reserve (Kruskal-Wallis, p=0.0051). The Shannon index for the study area (3.147) showed a rich and diversified woody diversity, whether in the reserve or in the sacred forest, the is diversity is moderate (Shannon spanning 2.5 – 2.6). However, a significant difference was observed between the Shannon indices obtained at the two sites (Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney, p=0.0066). The Simpson index was 0.920 for the study area, with a significant lower difference between the forest reserve (0.848) and the sacred forest (0.851) (Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney, p=0.678) but indicates a fairly even distribution of individuals between species (Table 1). However, some species dominated according to the abundance of individuals, notably Trichilia sp. (35%), Garcinia gnetoides Hutch. and Dalziel (18%), and Pseudospondias microcarpa (A. Rich.) Engl. (4%) in the sacred forest and Eucalyptus saligna Sm. (34%), Pterygota macrocarpa K. Schum. (13%), and Prunus africana (Hook.fil.) Kalkman (9%) in the reserve. The Sorensen index between the two sites was 30%, indicating a low floristic affinity between the Baleng sacred forest and reserve. The most abundant families in sacred forest are Meliaceae (33%), Clusiaceae (18%), Phyllantaceae (7%) and Malvaceae (6%). Whereas, in the forest Reserve, they were represented by Myrtaceae (34%), Malvaceae (19%), Rosaceae (9%) and Moraceae (6%).

Conservation status of species

According to the IUCN statute, the inventories revealed the presence of 5 species considered vulnerable and 2 considered near-threatened, which may be added to the threatened group in the near future. The vulnerable species were Pterygota macrocarpa, Prunus africana, and Cordia platythyrsa Bakerin the forest reserve and Pterygota macrocarpa and Pseudospondias microcarpa in the sacred forest. Near-threatened species included Strombosia pustulata Oliv.in the sacred forest and Polyscias fulva (Hiern) Harmsin the forest reserve. Concerning their native or exotic statute, only 4 exotic wood species were identified, namely Abies sp., Eucalyptus saligna, Podocarpus sp. They were found exclusively in the forest reserve. None were identified in the sacred forest.

Structure and carbon stocks

The distribution of individuals according to diameter class generally showed a decrease in the abundance of individuals as the diameter class increased in the sacred forest and the forest reserve (Figure 3). In fact, the diameter class 10-20 cm with respectively 168 stems·ha^-1 and 142 stems·ha^-1 for reserve and Sacred forest was the class with the most abundance of individuals per hectare (Figure 2). The average abundance of stems varied from 220±171 stems·ha^-1in the reserve to 360±103 stems·ha^-1 in the sacred forest. Welch’s t-test test showed a significant difference between these two management types in terms of abundance (Welch’s t-test, p=0.047). Basal area ranged from 22.97 ± 12.86 m²·ha^-1 to 35.18 ± 6.24 m²·ha^-1 in the forest reserve and sacred forest respectively. Like abundance, there were significant differences between them (Welch’s t-test, p=0.01). Mean diameters were respectively 15.90 ± 2.95 cm in the sacred forest and 39.48 ± 28.02 cm in the forest reserve. Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney showed significant difference for these two floristic entities (Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney, P=0.004). However, the carbon stock obtained in the reserve (120.08 ± 57.43 MgC·ha^-1) was significantly different from that obtained in the sacred forest (194.39 ± 56.69 MgC·ha^-1) (Figure 4).

Figure 3 – Distribution of trees by diameter class in the two study sites

Figure 4 – Structural (abundance, average diameter, and basal area) and carbon stocks of the Baleng sacred forest and reserve in the highlands of western Cameroon

DISCUSSION

Despite the small areas occupied by the sacred forest and the reserve in the Baleng group, the results of this study highlighted their potential in terms of biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation. The results on floristic, structural, and carbon storage parameters revealed the influence of community and Cameroon forest law management methods on the two sites in question.

The significant difference found between specific richness of the reserve and the sacred forest can be explained by several parameters.

The Baleng sacred forest has been preserved for decades and has never been subject to reforestation. It regenerates naturally, and there is little impact from human activity due to the awareness of local populations, respect for the tutelary divinities it shelters, and the social prohibitions in force in the Baleng cosmogony. This justifies the historical conservation nature of this sacred forest, as the species identified are all endogenous to tropical Africa (Tiokeng et al., 2020).

In the Baleng forest reserve, on the other hand, several exotic species have been identified. Once the reserve was demarcated by the government and designated as a reserve, the Cameroon government took steps to restore degraded areas, in particular through reforestation campaigns. This explains the presence of species, such as Eucalyptus saligna, Podocarpus mannii Hook.fil., and Abies sp., which were introduced to the WCH in the 1970s for their socio-economic and ecological benefits, particularly in terms of providing firewood and timber, and protecting low-lying areas and landslide zones from erosion (Njoukam et al., 2008). In the Baleng reserve, Eucalyptus saligna (34%) was the most abundant species, as it has been used by the government for the restoration/ reforestation of the site. However, the 63 woody species identified in the study area are comparable to the 65 species found by Maffo et al. (2025) in the Bandrefam sacred forest on the WCH. However, this species richness remains low compared to that of several other landscape types in the western Cameroon zone, notably the 124 species identified by Solefack et al. (2018) in the Koupa Matapit forest gallery.

Furthermore, despite the advanced level of degradation of natural ecosystems in the Baleng zone (Kuété et al., 2021), the forest reserve and sacred forest are refuges for several species with vulnerable and near-threatened status. These threatened species represent almost 10% of the species identified in the two forest entities. A total of 5 vulnerable species were recorded, which is similar to the 6 vulnerable species identified by Tiokeng et al. (2020) in the sacred forests of the highlands of West Cameroon, in particular the sacred forests of Bafou, Baleveng, Bamendou, Mbing Mekoup, Bamendjinda, and Bamendjo. In addition to Prunus africana mentioned by Tiokeng et al. (2020), other vulnerable species were observed in Baleng, including Pterygota macrocarpa, Cordia platythyrsa, Pterygota macrocarpa, and Pseudospondias microcarpa, enriching the list of protected species in the highlands of western Cameroon.

Stem density, which ranged from 220 to 360 stems·ha^-1 in the Baleng sites, was significantly different between the two forests. However, these values are much lower than those found in other sites, such as the Nkolenyeng community forest, where Clovis et al. (2018) report 661 ± 119 stems·ha^-1. However, they are still higher than the 73±27 stems·ha^-1 found by Clovis et al. (2018) in the Kompia community forest (Cameroon). Basal area varies from 23 to 35 m²·ha^-1 in this study area, which is perfectly consistent with the range of 14.44 – 65.60 m²·ha^-1 mentioned by Tiokeng et al. (2020) in the sacred forests on the WCH.

In terms of carbon storage in the two study sites, the results show a variation from 120.08 ± 57.43 MgC·ha^-1 (forest reserve) to 194.39 ± 56.69 MgC·ha^-1 (sacred forest), with a significant difference observed between them. This difference is evidence of the impact of the management method on the carbon storage potential of these forest ecosystems. The high basal area in the sacred forest (35 m²·ha^-1) could explain the high carbon stock value (194 MgC·ha^-1) in this site compared with the reserve, where for a basal area of 23 m²·ha^-1, carbon stocks of 120 MgC·ha^-1 were found. Carbon stocks found in the study area (120 – 194 MgC·ha^-1) are not far from the 130 MgC·ha^-1 found by Lounang et al. (2018) in the Batoufam sacred forest on WCH. However, they are much higher than the 24-41 MgC·ha^-1 found by Ngomeni et al. (2022) and Temgoua et al. (2020) in WCH agrosystems. This is evidence that these agrosystems are the results of the degradation of natural ecosystems, which are receding every year in WCH to the benefit of agriculture (Fokeng et al., 2020).

With the average species richness of the Baleng sacred forest, marked by the presence of 2 Vulnerable species and 01 Near-threatened species, and above all its high carbon storage potential (194 MgC·ha^-1 on average), it is becoming important that these spaces, which are managed by indigenous populations, can benefit from a secure legal status for their preservation, developed with full knowledge of the facts, involving participatory approaches (Ali et al., 2025) and following endogenous principles as mentioned by Atuahene et al. (2025). Despite their small size, they represent alternatives that the country could explore in order to meet a number of conservation objectives, including its international commitments to preserving biodiversity, combating climate change, and restoring the environment. Baleng ‘s experience in preserving sacred forests is a good example of sustainable management that Cameroon can learn from. Indeed, 2,940 sacred forests covering 1,860 ha have been identified by the Food and Agriculture Organization and are internationally recommended in all forest management processes (Djogbenou et al., 2016).

CONCLUSIONS

This study has shown that despite the highly anthropised nature of the Baleng forest landscape, both the forest reserve and the sacred forest in this ecological area continue to preserve significant biodiversity. However, because of the significant difference between the species richness at these two sites, they have different levels of contribution to biodiversity conservation. The same trends can be observed with regard to their contribution to carbon stock potential, where the Cameroon forest law-managed reserve stores less carbon than the sacred forest under endogenous community management. However, their contribution to mitigate climate change in the context of a degraded landscape remains significant (carbon stocks in excess of 100 MgC·ha^-1). Despite their small size, these forest entities are resilient and can be considered biodiversity reservoirs and carbon sinks. It is therefore recommended for sacred forests to be considered in sustainable ecosystem management policies in Cameroon. It is suggested that silvicultural interventions in forest reserves consider using species that store more carbon. Such measures would enable Cameroon to respond effectively to its commitments, notably the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), REDD+, and AFr100. Additionally, the results of this study will enable Cameroon to become involved in the sustainable development goals, particularly N°13 on climate action. Baleng’s forest sites could also be eligible to payment for environmental services and the voluntary carbon market.

Appendix 1
List of tree species identified at least at general level in both two forest (sacred and reserve) of Baleng

Note: Legend: LC: minor concern: VU: Vulnerable; NT: Near-threatened; DD: Insufficient Data: NE= Not Evaluated. Nat: Native species: EXT: Exotic species

Acknowledgements: Our thanks go to the traditional authorities of the Baleng chiefdom, who gave us access to the sacred forest for the floristic inventories. We thank also the Ministry of Forests and Fauna (MINFOF) for authorizing access to the forest reserve.

Funding: There was no external funding for this study.

Author contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, analysis: DWD, CCD; Investigation; resources; data curation: DWD; Writing: CCD; Review: DWD, CCD, ITT; Supervision: LZ. All authors declare that they have read and approved the publication of the manuscript in this present form.

Data availability statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Conflicts of interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

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