Comparative effects of cassava peel compost, Tithonia diversifolia compost and NPK fertiliser on maize performance in Ibadan

Adeyinka Kehinde Adebayo, Sifau Adenike Adejumo, Folake Bosede Anjorin, Samson Oyewole Olanipekun

ABSTRACT. Maize is a widely cultivated crop with significant agricultural and industrial uses. Its production depends on efficient soil fertility management, which is increasingly supported by the use of organic and inorganic amendments. The effectiveness of cassava peel compost (CPC) and Tithonia diversifolia compost (TdC) at 0 (control), 10, and 15 t ha⁻¹, as well as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK) based fertiliser at 150 kg N ha⁻¹, was tested on maize in a randomised complete block design (r=3) in the field. Nutrient analysis was conducted following standard procedures. A residual trial was conducted immediately after harvest to assess the lasting impact of compost on maize yield. Data on dry matter (DM, g) and grain yield (GY, t ha⁻¹) were collected and analysed using descriptive statistics and analysis of variance at α=0.05. NPK application initially enhanced maize performance more effectively than compost. However, in the second trial, compost application significantly improved maize performance compared to NPK. Maize GY and DM increased from 3.42 t ha⁻¹ and 224.53 g in the first trial to 3.95 t ha⁻¹ and 324.68 g in the second trial with the application of a higher rate (15 t ha⁻¹) of TdC. Soil Nitrogen (0.97% and 0.71%), phosphorus (34.08 mg/kg and 21.93 mg/kg), and potassium (0.69 cmol/kg and 1.09 cmol/kg) content in 15 t ha⁻¹ of TdC and CPC were higher compared to control, which contain 0.20% nitrogen, 17.17 mg/kg phosphorus and 0.31 cmol/kg potassium, respectively. Conclusively, compost alone may not replace synthetic fertilizers, but integrating TdC reduces NPK dependence, lowers environmental risks, and promotes sustainability.

Keywords: cassava peel; compost; poultry manure; Tithonia diversifolia; yield.

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ALSE and ACS Style
Adebayo, A.K.; Adejumo, S.A.; Anjorin, F.B.; Olanipekun, S.O. Comparative effects of cassava peel compost, Tithonia diversifolia compost and NPK fertiliser on maize performance in Ibadan. Journal of Applied Life Sciences and Environment 2025, 58 (1), 71-84.
https://doi.org/10.46909/alse-581166

AMA Style
Adebayo AK, Adejumo SA, Anjorin FB, Olanipekun SO. Comparative effects of cassava peel compost, Tithonia diversifolia compost and NPK fertiliser on maize performance in Ibadan. Journal of Applied Life Sciences and Environment. 2025; 58 (1): 71-84.
https://doi.org/10.46909/alse-581166

Chicago/Turabian Style
Adebayo, Adeyinka Kehinde, Sifau Adenike Adejumo, Folake Bosede Anjorin, and Samson Oyewole Olanipekun. 2025. “Comparative effects of cassava peel compost, Tithonia diversifolia compost and NPK fertiliser on maize performance in Ibadan.” Journal of Applied Life Sciences and Environment 58, no. 1: 71-84.
https://doi.org/10.46909/alse-581166

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Comparative effects of cassava peel compost, Tithonia diversifolia compost and NPK fertiliser on maize performance in Ibadan

Adeyinka Kehinde ADEBAYO^1*, Sifau Adenike ADEJUMO², Folake Bosede ANJORIN¹ and Samson Oyewole OLANIPEKUN¹

¹Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, Obafemi Awolowo University, Apata, Ibadan

²Department of Crop Protection and Environmental Biology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan

*Correspondence: adebayokehinde0410@gmail.com

Received: Sep. 11, 2024. Revised: Mar. 02, 2025. Accepted: Mar. 07, 2025. Published online: Apr. 23, 2025

ABSTRACT. Maize is a widely cultivated crop with significant agricultural and industrial uses. Its production depends on efficient soil fertility management, which is increasingly supported by the use of organic and inorganic amendments. The effectiveness of cassava peel compost (CPC) and Tithonia diversifolia compost (TdC) at 0 (control), 10, and 15 t ha⁻¹, as well as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK) based fertiliser at 150 kg N ha⁻¹, was tested on maize in a randomised complete block design (r=3) in the field. Nutrient analysis was conducted following standard procedures. A residual trial was conducted immediately after harvest to assess the lasting impact of compost on maize yield. Data on dry matter (DM, g) and grain yield (GY, t ha⁻¹) were collected and analysed using descriptive statistics and analysis of variance at α=0.05. NPK application initially enhanced maize performance more effectively than compost. However, in the second trial, compost application significantly improved maize performance compared to NPK. Maize GY and DM increased from 3.42 t ha⁻¹ and 224.53 g in the first trial to 3.95 t ha⁻¹ and 324.68 g in the second trial with the application of a higher rate (15 t ha⁻¹) of TdC. Soil Nitrogen (0.97% and 0.71%), phosphorus (34.08 mg/kg and 21.93 mg/kg), and potassium (0.69 cmol/kg and 1.09 cmol/kg) content in 15 t ha⁻¹ of TdC and CPC were higher compared to control, which contain 0.20% nitrogen, 17.17 mg/kg phosphorus and 0.31 cmol/kg potassium, respectively. Conclusively, compost alone may not replace synthetic fertilizers, but integrating TdC reduces NPK dependence, lowers environmental risks, and promotes sustainability.

Keywords: cassava peel; compost; poultry manure; Tithonia diversifolia; yield.

INTRODUCTION

Maize (Zea mays) is one of the most important cereal crops globally, serving as a staple food, livestock feed, and industrial raw material (FAO, 2023). In Nigeria, maize is a key dietary component, consumed in various forms, such as flour, meal, and porridge, making it essential for food security and economic development (Erenstein et al., 2022). However, maize production in Nigeria is increasingly constrained by declining soil fertility, significantly affecting crop yield and productivity (Tofa et al., 2022). This decline is attributed to continuous cropping (Falade and Labaeka, 2020), poor soil management practices, and excessive reliance on inorganic fertilisers, which provide immediate nutrient availability but contribute to long-term soil degradation, nutrient leaching, and environmental pollution (Osujieke et al., 2020). Addressing soil fertility depletion through sustainable nutrient management practices is critical for improving maize productivity. Historically, farmers have employed sustainable practices, such as crop rotation, intercropping, and shifting cultivation, to enhance soil fertility (Diacono et al., 2021). However, these methods are increasingly difficult to sustain due to the smallholder land system. As a result, the use of inorganic fertilisers has become a common practice to boost soil health and maize yields (Titirmare et al., 2023). Inorganic fertilisers, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK) based fertiliser, provide nutrients in forms that plants can easily absorb, leading to rapid growth (Nirere et al., 2021). Although these fertilisers can significantly enhance productivity, continuous application poses risks, such as soil degradation, and environmental pollution (Almutari, 2023). Studies have shown that the overuse of these fertilisers can lead to waterbody contamination due to runoff, causing long-term environmental harm (Vejan et al., 2021).

Organic amendments, such as compost, have gained attention as sustainable alternatives to synthetic fertilisers due to their potential to improve soil fertility (Singh et al., 2024), enhance microbial activity, and provide a slow release of nutrients. The use of organic fertilisers, such as compost, is increasingly preferred due to their benefits, including improved crop yield and, most notably, the gradual release of nutrients, which reduces the need for additional fertilisers in subsequent growing seasons (Wang et al., 2020). Cassava peel compost (CPC), derived from agricultural waste, is rich in organic matter and nutrients and offers an environmentally friendly alternative for soil fertility enhancement (Amadi et al., 2024). Tithonia diversifolia, a fast-growing shrub, has also been recognised for its high nitrogen content and potential as a green manure for improving soil fertility (Okonji et al., 2023). Although both compost types have shown promise in soil improvement, there is insufficient comparative research evaluating their effects on maize growth and yield relative to conventional fertilisers, particularly under field conditions in Nigeria. Studies on compost application in maize production have demonstrated positive effects on soil health and crop yield. For instance, Maku et al. (2019) found that compost improved soil organic matter content, moisture retention, and maize growth parameters. Similarly, Sara et al. (2024) reported that compost application enhanced maize grain yield compared to the sole reliance on NPK fertilisers. However, research comparing the residual effects of different compost types, particularly CPC and Tithonia diversifolia compost (TdC), in relation to conventional NPK fertiliser remains limited.

Moreover, most existing studies focus on immediate yield responses rather than on the residual effects of these amendments in subsequent growing seasons. This study aimed to fill these research gaps by assessing the residual impact of CPC, TdC, and NPK fertiliser (150 kg N ha⁻¹) on maize performance in Ibadan, Nigeria, by evaluating their long-term effects on soil fertility, maize growth parameters, and grain yield (GY) over time.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Compost preparation

Using the Partially Aerated Composting Technique (PACT-2) and a 1:3 plant material-to-poultry manure ratio (dry weight basis), CPC and TdC were produced from cassava peels and Tithonia diversifolia mixed with poultry manure, following the method described by Adediran et al. (2003). To accelerate the decomposition process, turning and watering were carried out every 2 weeks until maturity.

Pre-cropping soil analysis

Prior to setting up the experiment, composite soil samples were randomly collected from 10 points in the field using a 5-mm soil auger at a depth of 0–30 cm for physicochemical analysis. The samples were air-dried, ground, and sieved through a 2-mm mesh sieve. The chemical analyses included pH, nitrogen, available phosphorus, and available potassium. The soil pH was determined using a soil:water ratio of 1:2 by a pH meter with a glass electrode and nitrogen following the Kjeldahl method. Organic carbon (OC) was determined by Walkley and Black wet digestion (Nelson and Sommers, 1982). Potassium (K) was determined using a flame photometer. The available phosphorous was determined by Bray-1 extraction and determined colourimetrically using the molybdenum blue procedure (Bray and Kurtz, 1945). Exchangeable cations (Ca and Mg) were extracted using IMNH₄OAC and determined on an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Shortly after harvesting, a residual trial was set up.

Experimental location, design, and treatments

The field trials were conducted at the Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, Ibadan, located at a latitude of 07°38’N and a longitude of 3°84’E. The site is situated within the rainforest agroecological zone of southwestern Nigeria. The region is characterised by a bimodal rainfall pattern, with the rainy season extending from April to October. Annual temperatures ranged between 21 and 36℃, and relative humidity remained consistently high during the trials, ranging from 55 to 90%.

The experimental field was ploughed and harrowed before plot establishment. The SUWAN-1 SR-Y maize variety, obtained from the institute’s seed store, was used. A randomised complete block design with 3 replicates (r = 3) was employed. Each plot measured 5 m × 4 m (20 m²) and was separated by a 1-m alley. Plants were spaced 70 × 50 cm apart, sown at a seed rate of 5 kg/ha, and planted at a depth of 3 cm. The first trial was conducted in 2021, with sowing carried out on May 23rd. The treatments included TdC applied at 10 and 15 t ha⁻¹, CPC at 10 and 15 t ha⁻¹, NPK fertiliser (15:15:15), and a control (no compost or NPK application). The composts were applied to the soil 2 weeks before sowing, while the NPK fertiliser was applied 2 weeks after field establishment. Weeding was carried out every 2 weeks to maintain a weed-free field.

Soil samples from individual plots were collected after harvest using the same procedure described for the pre-cropping soil physicochemical analysis. Following harvest, a residual trial was conducted on the same experimental field used for the first trial. The plots were manually cleared with care to minimise nutrient loss, allowing for the evaluation of the residual effects of the previously applied compost on maize performance. The same treatments used in the initial trial were applied in the second trial.

Data collection

Five tagged plants from each plot were sampled every 2 weeks after seedling establishment to collect data on growth and yield components for both the initial and second (residual) trials. Before harvest, the following parameters were measured in the field: plant height, leaf area, number of leaves per plant, and stem girth.

After harvesting and drying to a moisture content of 12.1%, additional measurements were recorded, namely 100-seed weight, cob weight (CW, g), cob length (CL, cm), number of grains per cob, dry matter (DM, g), and grain yield (GY, t/ha).

Data analysis

Data were analysed by analysis of variance (ANOVA). The means from ANOVA were separated using Duncan’s multiple range tests (DMRT) at a confidence level of P<0.05 (Duncan, 1995).

RESULTS

Chemical analysis of compost and pre-cropping soil analysis

Except for calcium and zinc, TdC had a higher nutrient concentration than CPC, particularly nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, and sodium. Tithonia compost contained 5.31% nitrogen, 1.85% phosphorus, 4.51% calcium, 1.93% magnesium, 2.98% potassium, and 2.12% sodium. In comparison, CPC contained 4.47% nitrogen, 1.67% phosphorus, 10.36% calcium, 1.55% magnesium, 1.98% potassium, and 1.15% sodium (Table 1). The analysis of the chemical and physical properties of the soil used in the experiment revealed a pH of 7.10, indicating that it was neutral to slightly alkaline (Table 2). The soil was deficient in nitrogen (0.17%), phosphorus (0.38%), and potassium (0.57 cmol/kg).

Treatment effect on growth, yield component, and dry matter of maize

In the first trial, NPK fertiliser application outperformed all other treatments, showing significantly higher values. However, in the second trial, a reduction in all growth parameters was observed with NPK fertiliser application. The maize treated with NPK fertiliser showed a reduction in various growth parameters: leaf area decreased from 451.95 to 348.46 cm², stem girth from 28.22 to 22.50 cm, number of leaves per plant from 11.25 to 9.75, and plant height from 145.82 to 112.37 cm. Conversely, the growth parameters in maize increased with compost application, regardless of the compost type. Notably, applying a higher TdC rate (15 t ha^-1) resulted in the highest growth rate in both the first and second trials (Table 3). Similarly, NPK fertiliser application resulted in a significantly higher cob weight (846.83 g), number of seed/cob (215.83), 100-seed weight (64.90 g), and grain yield (4.32 t ha⁻¹) in the first trial. However, in the second trial, there was a significant decrease in cob weight (532.00 g), number of seed/cob (114.92), 100-seed weight (4.52 g), and grain yield (3.50 g) (Table 3). The total quantity of dry matter in maize was significantly impacted by the treatments used. Compared to the other compost types, irrespective of the rate of application, the mean value for NPK fertiliser application was higher (342.43 g). However, it was not appreciably greater than that for TdC from the initial trial (324.68 g). Interestingly, in the second trial, maize plants with TdC application at both rates (10 and 15 t ha⁻¹) exhibited greater dry matter accumulation (Figure 1).

Table 1
Chemical properties of cassava peel compost and Tithonia diversifolia compos

Parameters	CPC	TdC
Nitrogen (%)	4.47	5.31
Total Phosphorus (%)	1.67	1.85
Calcium (%)	10.36	4.51
Magnesium (%)	1.55	1.93
Potassium (%)	1.98	2.98
Sodium (%)	1.15	2.12
Exchangeable micronutrients (mg kg⁻¹)
Iron	2874	2183
Zinc	337	435
Copper	60	91
Manganese	479	598

CPC: Cassava peel compost, TdC: Tithonia diversifolia compost

Table 2
Pre-cropping physicochemical properties of soil used for the experiments

Property	Value
pH (H₂O)	7.1
Total Nitrogen	0.17
Available Phosphorus	3.28
Exchangeable Cations (cmol/kg)
Potassium	0.57
Sodium	0.21
Magnesium	0.75
Soil Particle Analysis (g/kg)
Sand	855
Silt	82
Clay	63

Table 3
Effect of cassava peel compost, Tithonia diversifolia compost, and NPK fertiliser on maize growth, measured at harvest

Treatment	Leaf area (cm²)		Stem girth (cm)		Number of leaves/plant		Plant height (cm)
Treatment	1^st trial	2^nd trial	1^st trial	2^nd trial	1^st rial	2^nd trial	1^st trial	2^nd trial
10 t ha⁻¹ CPC	298.88^e	322.18^e	23.22^e	25.50^c	9.00	10.25^b	129.30^e	137.07^a
15 t ha⁻¹ CPC	360.88^c	453.35^b	26.30^c	28.1^5b	9.50	10.50^b	147.70^b	143.02^a
10 t ha⁻¹ TdC	307.90^d	351.88^c	24.75^d	25.62^c	9.00	10.75^b	136.77^d	140.60^a
15t ha⁻¹ TdC	440.43^d	511.75^a	29.10^a	29.70^ab	11.25	11.5^0a	152.30^a	153.80^a
NPK (150 kg N ha^-1)	451.95^a	348.46^d	28.22^b	22.50^d	11.75	9.75^b	145.82^c	112.37^b
Control	258.05^f	253.98^f	19.65^f	16.57^e	8.00	7.00^d	104.95^f	94.52^a
SE±	15.10	17.74	0.66	0.89	0.29	3.00	3.68	6.45

Means followed by the same letter within a column are not significantly different according to DMRT (P=0.05). SE: Standard error

The same letters above the bars indicate no significant difference according to DMRT at P=0.05. T1: 10 t ha-1 cassava peel compost; T2: 15 t ha-1 cassava peel compost; T3: 10 t ha-1 Tithonia diversifolia compost; T4: 15 t ha-1 Tithonia diversifolia compost; T5: NPK (150 kg N ha-1); T6: Control
Figure 1 – Effect of cassava peel compost, Tithonia diversifolia compost, and NPK fertiliser treatments on dry matter in maize

Table 4
Effect of cassava peel compost, Tithonia diversifolia compost, and NPK fertiliser on maize yield components

Treatment	Cob weight (g)		Number of seed/cob		Cob length (cm)		100-seed weight (g)		Grain yield (t/ha)
Treatment	1^st trial	2^nd trial	1^st trial	2^nd trial	1^st trial	2^nd trial	1^st trial	2^nd trial	1^st trial	2^nd trial
10 t ha⁻¹ CPC	395.58^e	433.83^b	158.92^e	163.20^a	8.50^c	9.47^a	43.12^e	55.48^c	2.69^c	2.69^b
15 t ha⁻¹ CPC	525.28^d	512.53^a	186.80^c	198.12^b	9.06^bc	10.12^a	52.47^c	58.55^b	3.32^b	3.42^a
10 t ha⁻¹ TdC	544.10^c	449.38^b	171.17^d	176.62^c	9.27^b	9.50^a	49.12^d	55.07^d	2.57^c	2.62^b
15 t ha⁻¹ TdC	720.88^b	532.00^a	206.80^b	210.07^a	11.05^a	11.0^a	59.87^b	66.95^a	3.92^b	3.94^a
NPK (150 kg N ha^-1)	846.83^a	427.93^b	215.83^a	114.92^e	11.10^a	9.00^a	64.90^a	46.52^e	4.32^a	3.50^a
Control	284.65^f	262.85^c	104.60^f	97.72^f	7.17^d	5.25^b	31.87^f	26.45^f	1.75^d	1.52^c
SE±	39.2	40.10	7.63	8.57	0.29	0.32	2.25	2.65	0.02	0.03

Effect of treatments on post-cropping soil nutrient analysis

The soil nitrogen (2.27%), phosphorus (37.80 mg/kg), and potassium (1.28 cmol/kg) contents were higher in soil with NPK fertiliser application and were significantly higher than all treatments applied in the first trial. In the second trial, the soil nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium contents were reduced to 0.93%, 27.20 mg/kg and 0.52 cmol/kg, respectively (Table 5). Sodium (0.78 cmol/kg), magnesium (5.27 cmol/kg), and organic carbon (2.96%) were higher in soil amended with a higher rate of TdC, followed by CPC, at the same rate (15 t ha⁻¹), and the soil calcium content was higher in soil amended with CPC in both trials.

Interaction effect of treatments on maize growth, yield, and dry matter

Maize growth parameters (leaf area and plant height), dry matter, and yield components (number of seed/cob, cob length, 100-seed weight, and grain yield) were significantly higher in the second trial compared to the first trial. A higher rate of TdC resulted in significantly higher growth, yield components, and dry matter compared to all treatments applied (Table 6).

DISCUSSION

Compost has a long-term residual effect, influencing soil fertility and crop productivity beyond the initial application period (Leogrande et al., 2024). The immediate availability of essential minerals, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, in NPK fertilisers explains why maize treated with NPK fertiliser performed better in the first trial compared to those treated with organic fertilisers. These nutrients are readily available to plants, leading to a faster and more significant response in plant growth and yield (Sporchia and Caro, 2023).

Table 5
Effect of cassava peel compost, Tithonia diversifolia compost, and NPK fertiliser post-cropping on soil nutrient analysis in the first and second trials

Treatment

Nitrogen

(%)

Phosphorus (mg/kg)

Potassium (cmol/kg)

Sodium (cmol/kg)

Calcium (cmol/kg)

Magnesium (cmol/kg)

Organic

C (%)

1^st

Trial

2^nd

trial

1^st

trial

2^nd

trial

1^st

trial

2^nd

trial

1^st

trial

2^nd

trial

1^st

trial

2^nd

trial

1^st

trial

2^nd

trial

1^st

trial

2^nd

trial

10 t ha⁻¹

CPC

1.11^c

1.0^6c

21.84^e

20.70^e

0.67^c

0.72^bcd

0.38^c

0.40

13.09^b

14.59

4.07^b

4.25

2.88^b

2.66

15 t ha⁻¹

CPC

0.71^e

0.55^e

21.93^d

23.12^d

1.09^b

1.02^abc

0.69^a

0.78

15.27^a

16.52

4.55^b

4.59

2.60^c

2.75

10 t ha⁻¹

TdC

1.90^b

1.95^b

33.41^c

33.75^b

1.12^b

1.07^ab

0.55^b

0.57

11.73^c

11.08

5.17^a

4.28

2.79^b

2.81

15 t ha⁻¹

TdC

0.97^d

2.00^a

34.08^b

35.21^a

0.69^c

1.25^a

0.78^a

0.83

11.67^c

11.74

5.27^a

5.46

2.96^a

2.99

NPK

(150 kg N ha^-1)

2.27^a

0.93^d

37.80^a

27.20^c

1.28^a

0.52^cd

0.20^d

0.20

7.20^d

7.10

3.09^c

2.99

2.56^c

2.06

Control

0.20^f

17.17^f

10.30^f

0.31^d

0.30

0.19^d

1.80

5.58^e

5.30

0.53^d

0.54

0.20^d

1.87

SE±

0.14

0.15

1.06

0.75

0.07

0.08

0.04

0.10

0.69

0.81

0.37

0.33

0.02

0.09

Means followed by the same letter within a column are not significantly different according to DMRT (P=0.05). SE: Standard error

Table 6
Interaction Effect of cassava peel compost, Tithonia diversifolia compost, and NPK fertiliser maize growth and yield components in the first and second trials

Treatment	Leaf area (cm²)	Stem girth (cm)	Leaf number	Plant height (cm)	Dry matter (g)	C/W (g)	No. of seed/ cob	CL (cm)	100-seed weight (g)	Grain yield (t ha⁻¹)
1st trial	353.01^b	24.66^a	9.75^a	126.06^b	153.78^b	553.24^a	160.10^b	9.35^b	50.22^b	3.02^b
2nd trial	373.55^a	25.20^a	9.95^a	136.13^a	295.78^a	520.88^a	174.01^a	11.51^a	51.56^a	3.67^a
Treatment
10 t ha⁻¹ CPC	310.53^e	24.36^e	9.65^c	133.81^b	152.05^e	415.00^b	161.05^e	8.98^b	49.48^e	2.21^d
15 t ha⁻¹ CPC	406.90^b	27.22^b	10.00^c	145.36^ab	206.44^b	519.12^a	192.45^b	9.59^b	55.51^b	3.52^b
10 t ha⁻¹ TdC	329.89^d	25.16^d	9.87^c	138.68^ab	157.52^d	497.23^b	173.89^c	9.38^b	52.09^d	3.31^c
15 t ha⁻¹ TdC	476.09^a	29.42^a	11.37^a	153.05^a	298.62^a	626.12^a	208.43^a	11.27^a	63.41^a	4.01^a
NPK (150 kg N ha^-1)	400.19^c	25.36^c	10.00^b	116.59^c	182.73^c	637.11^a	163.37^d	11.17^a	55.51^c	3.42^c
Control	256.07^f	18.07^f	7.50^d	99.73^d	105.01^f	325.67^c	101.16^f	6.21^c	29.16^f	1.25^e
SE±	11.62	0.52	0.20	3.66	4.95	7.89	5.77	0.32	1.72	0.16

Means followed by the same letter within a column are not significantly different according to DMRT (P=0.05). SE: Standard error

Table 7
Interaction effect of cassava peel compost, Tithonia diversifolia compost, and NPK fertiliser on post-cropping soil nutrient analysis

Treatments	Nitrogen (%)	Phosphorus (mg/kg)	Potassium (cmol/kg)	Sodium (cmol/kg)	Calcium (cmol/kg)	Magnesium (cmol/kg)	Soil organic carbon (%)
1st trial	2.12^b	25.04^b	0.85^a	0.46^b	10.75^b	2.59^b	2.32^b
2nd trial	2.45^a	27.69^a	0.79^a	0.76^a	11.05^a	3.69^a	2.52^a
Treatment
10 t ha⁻¹CPC	1.08^c	21.24^e	0.66^b	0.39^d	13.84^b	4.16^b	2.61^c
15 t ha⁻¹ CPC	0.61^e	22.52^d	1.05^a	0.80^b	15.89^a	4.73^b	2.67^c
10 t ha⁻¹ TdC	1.92^b	33.58^b	1.09^a	0.73^b	11.40^d	4.57^b	2.80^b
15 t ha⁻¹ TdC	2.28^a	34.64^a	1.24^a	0.99^a	11.70^c	5.83^a	2.91^a
NPK (150 kg N ha^-1)	0.95^d	32.50^c	0.66^b	0.56^c	7.15^e	3.04^c	2.51^d
Control	0.20^f	13.73^f	0.30^c	0.20^e	5.44^f	0.54^d	1.03^e
SE±	1.10	1.19	0.05	0.06	0.53	1.11	0.10

Means followed by the same letter within a column are not significantly different according to DMRT (P=0.05). SE: Standard error; CPC: cassava peel compost; TdC: Tithonia diversifolia compost

In contrast, compost releases nutrients gradually as they decompose. This delayed nutrient release may not meet the immediate requirements of crops, particularly long-season crops, such as maize (Zapałowska and Jarecki, 2024). The gradual release of nutrients from compost results from the microbial decomposition of its organic matter (Adugna et al., 2018). However, synthetic fertilisers provide an immediate but short-lived nutrient supply, as was evident in the results of the first trial. The rapid nutrient availability from NPK fertilisers promotes fast growth and higher yields, especially in nutrient-poor soils, where plants may struggle to access essential nutrients (Lucas et al., 2019).

NPK fertilisers are specifically formulated to meet crop nutritional needs, ensuring a balanced supply of essential nutrients that optimise plant growth and productivity (Zhao et al., 2016). This advantage was clearly demonstrated in the first trial. In soils that are highly degraded or low in organic matter, the immediate nutrient supply from NPK fertilisers plays a crucial role in supporting crop growth. However, in the second trial, compost’s longer nutrient release and gradual mineralisation may have contributed to increased maize production, as reflected in improved cob length, 100-seed weight, and total grain yield. According to Setyowati et al. (2022), compost decomposes gradually, ensuring a continuous supply of nutrients. This steady release reduces the need for additional fertiliser applications in future growing seasons (Okonji et al., 2023). Furthermore, the slow nutrient release from compost minimises leaching losses and enhances nutrient use efficiency (Diacono and Montemurro, 2010). Unlike NPK fertilisers, which provide an immediate nutrient boost but risk rapid uptake and potential leaching losses if not properly managed, compost aligns more closely with plant nutrient requirements over time. Pelu et al. (2020) highlighted that the gradual mineralisation of compost nutrients matches plant uptake rates, reducing nutrient loss and improving overall crop nutrient efficiency.

The abundance of micronutrients in compost can significantly enhance maize yield by improving physiological and biochemical processes within the plant. Micronutrients, such as zinc, iron, manganese, and copper (Cu) are crucial for enzymatic activities that drive key physiological processes, such as photosynthesis, respiration, and nutrient assimilation. For example, zinc is essential for nitrogen metabolism, and iron is critical for chlorophyll synthesis. The presence of these micronutrients in compost ensures that maize can efficiently use macronutrients, leading to better growth and higher yields. Dilip Kumar and Tolanur, (2024) demonstrated that maize grown with micronutrient-enriched compost showed a significant increase in yield due to improved nutrient uptake and utilisation.

TdC has a high nutrient content, particularly in nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium. As a result, maize treated with TdC outperformed that treated with CPC. Tithonia diversifolia leaves are known to be a rich nutrient source, with studies showing that they can contain up to 3.5% nitrogen, 0.37% phosphorus, and 4.1% potassium (Ojewole et al., 2023). This was further evidenced by the high nitrogen (5.31%), phosphorus (1.85%), and potassium contents found in the chemical analysis of TdC conducted before planting.

Conversely, cassava peels have a lower nutrient content. In accordance with Onguene et al. (2021), although they offer organic matter, their usefulness as a nutrient source for maize is limited due to their much lower nitrogen and phosphorus content compared to Tithonia diversifolia leaves. TdC has higher amounts of these vital elements, which boosts maize performance. The nutrient ratios of TdC are frequently better balanced and in line with crops, such as maize, facilitating the more effective nutrient uptake and utilisation. TdC may also offer beneficial secondary nutrients and micronutrients that support overall plant health and development. Tithonia diversifolia decomposes quickly, releasing nutrients rapidly and making them available to plants sooner. This rapid decomposition benefits fast-growing crops, such as maize, which require a consistent nutrient supply throughout their growth cycle (Okonji et al., 2023). Cassava peels decompose more slowly, delaying nutrient release and reducing their immediate availability to plants (Adebayo et al., 2025).

Cassava peels are a significant agricultural waste product, and improper disposal can contribute to soil and environmental pollution (Adiaha, 2023). Cassava processing generates wastewater that, if released untreated, can lead to soil and water contamination (Abotbina et al., 2022). Additionally, cassava peels contain cyanogenic glycosides, which release toxic hydrogen cyanide upon hydrolysis, posing environmental risks (Adegoke et al., 2020). Tithonia diversifolia, commonly known as Mexican sunflower, is an invasive species that can disrupt native crops and plant communities. In Africa, it has been observed to disturb native vegetation and crop yields, becoming a serious farmland weed (Amadi et al., 2023). Composting these materials transforms waste into valuable soil amendments, reducing landfill accumulation and methane emissions from organic waste decomposition (Ayilara et al., 2020). This practice promotes a circular economy by repurposing waste materials into useful agricultural inputs, mitigating environmental pollution and enhancing soil health. Higher maize yields were observed with a higher compost application rate compared to a lower rate, which can be attributed to the fact that higher compost rates enhance nutrient availability, ensuring that maize plants receive essential nutrients when needed, particularly during critical growth stages (Kenea et al., 2021). Additionally, increased compost application adds more organic matter to the soil, promoting soil aggregation and improving its structure. This, as noted by Hakimi et al. (2024), facilitates better root penetration, leading to more effective nutrient and water uptake. Furthermore, higher compost application boosts the soil’s cation exchange capacity, which enhances its ability to retain and supply essential nutrients to plants. This results in more efficient nutrient use and ultimately higher yields, as maize can access the necessary nutrients throughout its growth cycle (Essel et al., 2021)

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights the critical role of TdC in mitigating soil pollution by promoting sustainable fertilisation methods that enhance crop productivity while minimising chemical contamination, nutrient leaching, and soil degradation, which are commonly associated with prolonged NPK fertiliser use. The ability of TdC to release nutrients gradually and consistently further underscores its potential as a long-term soil fertility enhancer, particularly for nutrient-demanding crops, such as maize. Given these benefits, it is recommended that while compost may not entirely replace synthetic fertilisers in all agricultural contexts, the integration of TdC into fertilisation strategies can significantly reduce the dependence on chemical fertilisers, mitigate environmental risks, and promote more sustainable and ecologically sound agricultural practices.

Author contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, data curation: AAK; Writing: AFB; Review: OSO; Supervision: ASA. All authors declare that they have read and approved the publication of the manuscript in this present form.

Funding: This study did not receive any external funding.

Acknowledgements: The authors extend their sincere gratitude to all field staff of the Institute of Agricultural Research and Training for their invaluable support during the field trial.

Conflicts of interest: The authors affirm that no conflicts of interest are associated with this publication.

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